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          "text": "Each chapter offers a basic introduction to its topic, accessible to students and other newcomers, and then outlines challenges and future perspectives for the benefit of experienced researchers and practitioners in the field.",
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          "text": "Building on this analysis, it develops a set of preliminary recommendations on how to address ethical and social challenges in current and future applications of embodied AI.",
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          "text": "In this survey article, we organize existing challenges into a set of categories related to broader open problems in robot planning, behavior design, and evaluation methodologies.",
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            "statement": "To address these challenges the team will bring together roboticists, spoken dialogue systems researchers, human-robot interaction researchers, computer scientists, speech scientists and technologists and natural language processing researchers to understand how to use various knowledge sources so that robots can more naturally and effectively interact with people.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2432393",
            "published": "2024-05-19",
            "source_sentence": "To address these challenges the team will bring together roboticists, spoken dialogue systems researchers, human-robot interaction researchers, computer scientists, speech scientists and technologists and natural language processing researchers to understand how to use various knowledge sources so that robots can more naturally and effectively interact with people."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "Children with autism have difficulties with social interaction and several studies indicate that they show preference toward interaction with objects, such as computers and robots, rather than with humans.",
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            "source_sentence": "Children with autism have difficulties with social interaction and several studies indicate that they show preference toward interaction with objects, such as computers and robots, rather than with humans."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "Although this relational turn raises many difficult issues and requires more work, this paper provides a rough outline of an alternative approach to moral consideration that can assist us in shaping our relations to intelligent robots and, by extension, to all artificial and biological entities that appear to us as more than instruments for our human purposes.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2116547831",
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            "source_sentence": "Although this relational turn raises many difficult issues and requires more work, this paper provides a rough outline of an alternative approach to moral consideration that can assist us in shaping our relations to intelligent robots and, by extension, to all artificial and biological entities that appear to us as more than instruments for our human purposes."
          },
          {
            "kind": "social",
            "statement": "Finally, the last challenge is related to responsible innovation and how ethics and security should be carefully considered as we develop the technology further.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2787690100",
            "published": "2018-01-31",
            "source_sentence": "Finally, the last challenge is related to responsible innovation and how ethics and security should be carefully considered as we develop the technology further."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "For the next two challenges, we have included social robotics and medical robotics as application-specific areas of development to highlight the substantial societal and health impacts that they will bring.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2787690100",
            "published": "2018-01-31",
            "source_sentence": "For the next two challenges, we have included social robotics and medical robotics as application-specific areas of development to highlight the substantial societal and health impacts that they will bring."
          },
          {
            "kind": "social",
            "statement": "Building on this analysis, it develops a set of preliminary recommendations on how to address ethical and social challenges in current and future applications of embodied AI.",
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            "doc_id": "W2916945592",
            "published": "2019-02-26",
            "source_sentence": "Building on this analysis, it develops a set of preliminary recommendations on how to address ethical and social challenges in current and future applications of embodied AI."
          },
          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "Overarching ethical issues and concerns include: harm prevention and various questions of data ethics; a lack of guidance on development of AI applications, their clinical integration and training of health professionals; 'gaps' in ethical and regulatory frameworks; the potential for misuse including using the technologies to replace established services, thereby potentially exacerbating existing health inequalities.",
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            "doc_id": "W2916945592",
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            "source_sentence": "Overarching ethical issues and concerns include: harm prevention and various questions of data ethics; a lack of guidance on development of AI applications, their clinical integration and training of health professionals; 'gaps' in ethical and regulatory frameworks; the potential for misuse including using the technologies to replace established services, thereby potentially exacerbating existing health inequalities."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "Specific challenges identified and discussed in the application of embodied AI include: matters of risk-assessment, referrals, and supervision; the need to respect and protect patient autonomy; the role of non-human therapy; transparency in the use of algorithms; and specific concerns regarding long-term effects of these applications on understandings of illness and the human condition.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2916945592",
            "published": "2019-02-26",
            "source_sentence": "Specific challenges identified and discussed in the application of embodied AI include: matters of risk-assessment, referrals, and supervision; the need to respect and protect patient autonomy; the role of non-human therapy; transparency in the use of algorithms; and specific concerns regarding long-term effects of these applications on understandings of illness and the human condition."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "However, it is difficult to generate human-like gestures due to the lack of understanding of how people gesture.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3083173864",
            "published": "2020-11-27",
            "source_sentence": "However, it is difficult to generate human-like gestures due to the lack of understanding of how people gesture."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "Robot navigation in crowded public spaces is a complex task that requires addressing a variety of engineering and human factors challenges.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3134972302",
            "published": "2023-02-17",
            "source_sentence": "Robot navigation in crowded public spaces is a complex task that requires addressing a variety of engineering and human factors challenges."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "These challenges have motivated a great amount of research resulting in important developments for the fields of robotics and human-robot interaction over the past three decades.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3134972302",
            "published": "2023-02-17",
            "source_sentence": "These challenges have motivated a great amount of research resulting in important developments for the fields of robotics and human-robot interaction over the past three decades."
          },
          {
            "kind": "social",
            "statement": "Human skin perceives physical stimuli applied to the body and mitigates the risk of physical interaction through its soft and resilient mechanical properties.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W4282912956",
            "published": "2022-06-08",
            "source_sentence": "Human skin perceives physical stimuli applied to the body and mitigates the risk of physical interaction through its soft and resilient mechanical properties."
          }
        ]
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      "capability": "care robots",
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      "truth_method": "docs/atlas-truth-method-humanoid-robots.md: selection rules stated there; a blind second reader annotated every candidate without the first reader's calls or totals and agreed 40/43 (kappa 0.73) for social robots, 46/49 (0.83) for care robots and 38/42 (0.75) for teleoperated robots on barrier-or-not",
      "candidates": [
        {
          "doc_id": "1523767",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "Robots are however very difficult to program to perform new tasks: non-programmers can teach relatively stereotyped action sequences and expert programmers can generate more elaborate action strategies through long programming and debugging processes.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1523767",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "Part of the difficulty stems from trying to teach the robot at the level of actions, since the actions to achieve a desired effect depend strongly on details of the environment.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1523767",
          "index": 11,
          "text": "Furthermore, the robot will be aware of its own knowledge and lack of knowledge, and will be able to plan to take actions, including performing experiments and asking humans for further information, to improve its own knowledge about how to behave in its environment.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1614074",
          "index": 6,
          "text": "The physical presence of robots and their ability to manipulate their physical environment provides both unlimited potential and extreme challenges.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1849287",
          "index": 6,
          "text": "Technically, this integrative project addresses a longer-term vision and intellectual challenge of developing a library approach to robot behavior generation and learning.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246671",
          "index": 0,
          "text": "\"Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246671",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246671",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "The key challenge for lower limb amputees is that there is no feedback control to the device from the visual information.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246671",
          "index": 3,
          "text": "As a result, the rest of the body requires extra musculature recruitment to compensate for increased instability, posing a greater risk of falling and degenerative joint issues.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246672",
          "index": 0,
          "text": "Individuals with lower limb amputation face multiple disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246672",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used under a constrained laboratory environment.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246672",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "The key challenge for lower limb amputees is that there is no longer any feedback control to the device from the visual information obtained through the eyes.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246672",
          "index": 3,
          "text": "As a result, the rest of the body requires extra musculature recruitment to compensate for the increased instability, posing a greater risk of falling and negative joint issues.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246673",
          "index": 0,
          "text": "Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246673",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246673",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "The key challenge for lower limb amputees is that there is no feedback control to the device from the visual information.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2246673",
          "index": 3,
          "text": "As a result, the rest of the body requires extra musculature recruitment to compensate for increased instability, posing a greater risk of falling and degenerative joint issues.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2344314",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "A severe workforce shortage, combined with the high costs associated with eldercare, is forcing nursing homes to close or provide substandard care.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2344314",
          "index": 17,
          "text": "Successful deployment of support equipment cannot be achieved by advanced design alone.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2344314",
          "index": 18,
          "text": "Product development methodologies will be applied to obtain feedback from end users throughout the project, and strategies will be established for effectively deploying the technology and removing barriers for adoption.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W1652981668",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "This poses a great challenge to the manufacturers of such robots who have to ensure the safety of their systems.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W1652981668",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "Up to now, only general safety standards for machines were available and the lack of a specialized safety standard with detailed requirements has resulted in uncertainty and a relatively high residual risk for manufacturers.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W1945345301",
          "index": 9,
          "text": "Future research could give robots stronger operational roles, use more specific outcome measures, and perform cost-benefit analyses.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W1988821580",
          "index": 0,
          "text": "The growing number of elderly individuals presents new challenges for society.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W1988821580",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "An attempt to overcome the limitations caused by the lack of human caregivers is the inclusion of assistive technology such as socially active robots.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W1988821580",
          "index": 7,
          "text": "The discussions were recorded and processed according to six aspects: (i) acceptability and privacy, (ii) pertinence of services, (iii) possible obstacles, (iv) motivation level to use the proposed services, (v) organizational issues and (vi) recommendations.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2048596731",
          "index": 0,
          "text": "In designing and evaluating human-robot interactions and interfaces, researchers often use a simulated robot due to the high cost of robots and time required to program them.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2083250114",
          "index": 7,
          "text": "Most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth",
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2106373505",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "What's more, given the stage of their development and lack of standards provided by the International Organization for Standardization to guide their development, ethics ought to be included into the design process of such robots.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2188154624",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "Robots can also reduce operating costs, reduce scrap and are flexible for future changes.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2188154624",
          "index": 4,
          "text": "Robotics \u2019 capabilities have only increased with time, while costs have continued to fall.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2188154624",
          "index": 5,
          "text": "Major robot manufacturers are constantly upgrading their robots with increased payload capacity, greater accuracy, increased reach and range of motion, improved speed and acceleration, faster communication with external equipment, better safety features and lower operational costs.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2789947276",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "However, personnel-related social psychological barriers to the introduction of care robots have been given very little study.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2789947276",
          "index": 10,
          "text": "CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that an intimate human-robot relationship can pose a challenge from the perspective of the acceptance of care robots.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth",
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2801271260",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "OBJECTIVE: The goal of the research was to understand the emerging role of robotics in health care and identify existing and likely future challenges to maximize the benefits associated with robotics and related convergent technologies.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2801271260",
          "index": 7,
          "text": "RESULTS: We conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth",
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2801271260",
          "index": 8,
          "text": "CONCLUSIONS: Sociotechnical challenges associated with the effective integration of robotic applications in health care settings are likely to be significant, particularly for patient-facing functions.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2946772588",
          "index": 4,
          "text": "Stroke patients aged at least 18 years with moderate or severe upper limb functional limitation, between 1 week and 5 years after their first stroke, were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to receive robot-assisted training, EULT, or usual care.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2946772588",
          "index": 15,
          "text": "INTERPRETATION: Robot-assisted training and EULT did not improve upper limb function after stroke compared with usual care for patients with moderate or severe upper limb functional limitation.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3029798270",
          "index": 9,
          "text": "Short term, an approach to meeting this challenge is to adopt existing digital health technologies.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3038265118",
          "index": 8,
          "text": "We conclude that for AI to be implemented ethically, it cannot transgress the core values of nursing, usurp aspects of caring that can only meaningfully be carried out by human beings, and it must support, open, or improve opportunities for nurses to provide the uniquely human aspects of care.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3094783081",
          "index": 2,
          "text": "This electronic system heterogeneously integrates rigid, soft, and liquid materials through a low-cost fabrication method.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3132640379",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "We investigate the domestication of robot technology in the context of what in Scandinavia is called \u201cwelfare technology\u201d (relating to the terms \u201cgerontechnology\u201d and \u201cActive Assisted Living,\u201d) that especially aims to mitigate older adults\u00b4 challenges with living in their own homes.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3139475260",
          "index": 3,
          "text": "Besides, the recently enacted European Cybersecurity Act establishes a cybersecurity certification framework, which could be used to define cybersecurity requirements for robots, although concrete cyber-physical implementation requirements are not yet prescribed.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3139475260",
          "index": 4,
          "text": "In this article, we illustrate cybersecurity challenges and their subsequent safety implications with the concrete example of care robots.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3139475260",
          "index": 8,
          "text": "While the latest European policymaking efforts on robot regulation acknowledge the importance of cybersecurity, many details, and their impact on user safety have not yet been addressed in depth.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3139475260",
          "index": 10,
          "text": "Cybersecurity and physical product safety legal requirements are governed separately in a dual regulatory framework, presenting a challenge in governing uniformly and adequately cyber-physical systems such as care robots.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth",
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3139475260",
          "index": 11,
          "text": "We conceptualize and discuss the challenges of regulating cyber-physical systems\u2019 security with the current dual framework, particularly the lack of mandatory certifications.",
          "kept_by": [
            "baseline"
          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W3153662883",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "So-called care robots are presented as a solution to the nursing crisis, despite doubts about their technological readiness and the lack of concrete usage scenarios in everyday nursing practice.",
          "kept_by": [
            "truth"
          ]
        }
      ],
      "records": {
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            "kind": "physical",
            "statement": "Robots are however very difficult to program to perform new tasks: non-programmers can teach relatively stereotyped action sequences and expert programmers can generate more elaborate action strategies through long programming and debugging processes.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "1523767",
            "published": "2015-09-03",
            "source_sentence": "Robots are however very difficult to program to perform new tasks: non-programmers can teach relatively stereotyped action sequences and expert programmers can generate more elaborate action strategies through long programming and debugging processes."
          },
          {
            "kind": "physical",
            "statement": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2246671",
            "published": "2023-07-31",
            "source_sentence": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment."
          },
          {
            "kind": "physical",
            "statement": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used under a constrained laboratory environment.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2246672",
            "published": "2023-07-31",
            "source_sentence": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used under a constrained laboratory environment."
          },
          {
            "kind": "physical",
            "statement": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2246673",
            "published": "2023-07-31",
            "source_sentence": "Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment."
          },
          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "Up to now, only general safety standards for machines were available and the lack of a specialized safety standard with detailed requirements has resulted in uncertainty and a relatively high residual risk for manufacturers.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W1652981668",
            "published": "2014-06-02",
            "source_sentence": "Up to now, only general safety standards for machines were available and the lack of a specialized safety standard with detailed requirements has resulted in uncertainty and a relatively high residual risk for manufacturers."
          },
          {
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            "statement": "Most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2083250114",
            "published": "2014-03-27",
            "source_sentence": "Most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting."
          },
          {
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            "statement": "CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that an intimate human-robot relationship can pose a challenge from the perspective of the acceptance of care robots.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2789947276",
            "published": "2018-03-25",
            "source_sentence": "CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that an intimate human-robot relationship can pose a challenge from the perspective of the acceptance of care robots."
          },
          {
            "kind": "social",
            "statement": "RESULTS: We conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2801271260",
            "published": "2018-05-05",
            "source_sentence": "RESULTS: We conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks."
          },
          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "Besides, the recently enacted European Cybersecurity Act establishes a cybersecurity certification framework, which could be used to define cybersecurity requirements for robots, although concrete cyber-physical implementation requirements are not yet prescribed.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3139475260",
            "published": "2021-03-18",
            "source_sentence": "Besides, the recently enacted European Cybersecurity Act establishes a cybersecurity certification framework, which could be used to define cybersecurity requirements for robots, although concrete cyber-physical implementation requirements are not yet prescribed."
          },
          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "Cybersecurity and physical product safety legal requirements are governed separately in a dual regulatory framework, presenting a challenge in governing uniformly and adequately cyber-physical systems such as care robots.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3139475260",
            "published": "2021-03-18",
            "source_sentence": "Cybersecurity and physical product safety legal requirements are governed separately in a dual regulatory framework, presenting a challenge in governing uniformly and adequately cyber-physical systems such as care robots."
          },
          {
            "kind": "physical",
            "statement": "So-called care robots are presented as a solution to the nursing crisis, despite doubts about their technological readiness and the lack of concrete usage scenarios in everyday nursing practice.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3153662883",
            "published": "2021-04-16",
            "source_sentence": "So-called care robots are presented as a solution to the nursing crisis, despite doubts about their technological readiness and the lack of concrete usage scenarios in everyday nursing practice."
          }
        ],
        "baseline": [
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "Furthermore, the robot will be aware of its own knowledge and lack of knowledge, and will be able to plan to take actions, including performing experiments and asking humans for further information, to improve its own knowledge about how to behave in its environment.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "1523767",
            "published": "2015-09-03",
            "source_sentence": "Furthermore, the robot will be aware of its own knowledge and lack of knowledge, and will be able to plan to take actions, including performing experiments and asking humans for further information, to improve its own knowledge about how to behave in its environment."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "\"Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2246671",
            "published": "2023-07-31",
            "source_sentence": "\"Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "Individuals with lower limb amputation face multiple disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2246672",
            "published": "2023-07-31",
            "source_sentence": "Individuals with lower limb amputation face multiple disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2246673",
            "published": "2023-07-31",
            "source_sentence": "Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "A severe workforce shortage, combined with the high costs associated with eldercare, is forcing nursing homes to close or provide substandard care.",
            "source": "nsf",
            "doc_id": "2344314",
            "published": "2024-01-09",
            "source_sentence": "A severe workforce shortage, combined with the high costs associated with eldercare, is forcing nursing homes to close or provide substandard care."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "Future research could give robots stronger operational roles, use more specific outcome measures, and perform cost-benefit analyses.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W1945345301",
            "published": "2015-09-13",
            "source_sentence": "Future research could give robots stronger operational roles, use more specific outcome measures, and perform cost-benefit analyses."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "An attempt to overcome the limitations caused by the lack of human caregivers is the inclusion of assistive technology such as socially active robots.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W1988821580",
            "published": "2013-07-25",
            "source_sentence": "An attempt to overcome the limitations caused by the lack of human caregivers is the inclusion of assistive technology such as socially active robots."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "In designing and evaluating human-robot interactions and interfaces, researchers often use a simulated robot due to the high cost of robots and time required to program them.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2048596731",
            "published": "2015-03-02",
            "source_sentence": "In designing and evaluating human-robot interactions and interfaces, researchers often use a simulated robot due to the high cost of robots and time required to program them."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "Most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2083250114",
            "published": "2014-03-27",
            "source_sentence": "Most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting."
          },
          {
            "kind": "social",
            "statement": "What's more, given the stage of their development and lack of standards provided by the International Organization for Standardization to guide their development, ethics ought to be included into the design process of such robots.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2106373505",
            "published": "2012-01-02",
            "source_sentence": "What's more, given the stage of their development and lack of standards provided by the International Organization for Standardization to guide their development, ethics ought to be included into the design process of such robots."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "Major robot manufacturers are constantly upgrading their robots with increased payload capacity, greater accuracy, increased reach and range of motion, improved speed and acceleration, faster communication with external equipment, better safety features and lower operational costs.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2188154624",
            "published": "2013-01-01",
            "source_sentence": "Major robot manufacturers are constantly upgrading their robots with increased payload capacity, greater accuracy, increased reach and range of motion, improved speed and acceleration, faster communication with external equipment, better safety features and lower operational costs."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "Robotics \u2019 capabilities have only increased with time, while costs have continued to fall.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2188154624",
            "published": "2013-01-01",
            "source_sentence": "Robotics \u2019 capabilities have only increased with time, while costs have continued to fall."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "Robots can also reduce operating costs, reduce scrap and are flexible for future changes.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2188154624",
            "published": "2013-01-01",
            "source_sentence": "Robots can also reduce operating costs, reduce scrap and are flexible for future changes."
          },
          {
            "kind": "social",
            "statement": "CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that an intimate human-robot relationship can pose a challenge from the perspective of the acceptance of care robots.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2789947276",
            "published": "2018-03-25",
            "source_sentence": "CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that an intimate human-robot relationship can pose a challenge from the perspective of the acceptance of care robots."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "CONCLUSIONS: Sociotechnical challenges associated with the effective integration of robotic applications in health care settings are likely to be significant, particularly for patient-facing functions.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2801271260",
            "published": "2018-05-05",
            "source_sentence": "CONCLUSIONS: Sociotechnical challenges associated with the effective integration of robotic applications in health care settings are likely to be significant, particularly for patient-facing functions."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "OBJECTIVE: The goal of the research was to understand the emerging role of robotics in health care and identify existing and likely future challenges to maximize the benefits associated with robotics and related convergent technologies.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2801271260",
            "published": "2018-05-05",
            "source_sentence": "OBJECTIVE: The goal of the research was to understand the emerging role of robotics in health care and identify existing and likely future challenges to maximize the benefits associated with robotics and related convergent technologies."
          },
          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "RESULTS: We conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W2801271260",
            "published": "2018-05-05",
            "source_sentence": "RESULTS: We conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks."
          },
          {
            "kind": "biological",
            "statement": "Short term, an approach to meeting this challenge is to adopt existing digital health technologies.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3029798270",
            "published": "2020-05-26",
            "source_sentence": "Short term, an approach to meeting this challenge is to adopt existing digital health technologies."
          },
          {
            "kind": "social",
            "statement": "We conclude that for AI to be implemented ethically, it cannot transgress the core values of nursing, usurp aspects of caring that can only meaningfully be carried out by human beings, and it must support, open, or improve opportunities for nurses to provide the uniquely human aspects of care.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3038265118",
            "published": "2020-07-01",
            "source_sentence": "We conclude that for AI to be implemented ethically, it cannot transgress the core values of nursing, usurp aspects of caring that can only meaningfully be carried out by human beings, and it must support, open, or improve opportunities for nurses to provide the uniquely human aspects of care."
          },
          {
            "kind": "economic",
            "statement": "This electronic system heterogeneously integrates rigid, soft, and liquid materials through a low-cost fabrication method.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3094783081",
            "published": "2020-11-06",
            "source_sentence": "This electronic system heterogeneously integrates rigid, soft, and liquid materials through a low-cost fabrication method."
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          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "Cybersecurity and physical product safety legal requirements are governed separately in a dual regulatory framework, presenting a challenge in governing uniformly and adequately cyber-physical systems such as care robots.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3139475260",
            "published": "2021-03-18",
            "source_sentence": "Cybersecurity and physical product safety legal requirements are governed separately in a dual regulatory framework, presenting a challenge in governing uniformly and adequately cyber-physical systems such as care robots."
          },
          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "We conceptualize and discuss the challenges of regulating cyber-physical systems\u2019 security with the current dual framework, particularly the lack of mandatory certifications.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3139475260",
            "published": "2021-03-18",
            "source_sentence": "We conceptualize and discuss the challenges of regulating cyber-physical systems\u2019 security with the current dual framework, particularly the lack of mandatory certifications."
          },
          {
            "kind": "political",
            "statement": "While the latest European policymaking efforts on robot regulation acknowledge the importance of cybersecurity, many details, and their impact on user safety have not yet been addressed in depth.",
            "source": "openalex",
            "doc_id": "W3139475260",
            "published": "2021-03-18",
            "source_sentence": "While the latest European policymaking efforts on robot regulation acknowledge the importance of cybersecurity, many details, and their impact on user safety have not yet been addressed in depth."
          }
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          "text": "The proposed system will both reduce the risk of infection to health care workers, and will increase the quality of care that patients receive: by reducing the time requirements of donning and doffing protective clothing, health care professionals can concentrate on patient care.",
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          "text": "Thermal IR imaging+eye tracking identifies when deaf babies who cannot yet produce language are in a peaked arousal state and ready to learn.",
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          "text": "Economic benefits include reduced costs, new employment opportunities, competitive advantages and contributions to the national technological infrastructure in subsea operations.",
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        {
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          "text": "This Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase 2 project will address fundamental challenges of connecting higher-dimensional data from remote environments to intuitive controls.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1836819",
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          "text": "Reinforcement learning algorithms are not yet mature enough to guarantee performance when applied to control of CPS.",
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        {
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          "text": "In light of these limitations, this project aims to lay the theoretical and computational foundation to certify reinforcement learning algorithms so that they may be deployed in society with high confidence.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1836819",
          "index": 5,
          "text": "This project will certify reinforcement learning algorithms that compute optimal control policies in systems with non-classical dynamics and non-classical costs.",
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          ]
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1836932",
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          "text": "Reinforcement learning algorithms are not yet mature enough to guarantee performance when applied to control of CPS.",
          "kept_by": []
        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1836932",
          "index": 4,
          "text": "In light of these limitations, this project aims to lay the theoretical and computational foundation to certify reinforcement learning algorithms so that they may be deployed in society with high confidence.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "1836932",
          "index": 5,
          "text": "This project will certify reinforcement learning algorithms that compute optimal control policies in systems with non-classical dynamics and non-classical costs.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2221570",
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          "text": "Remote presence systems, consisting of operator interfaces coupled to avatar robots, promise new ways of connecting people across the barrier of distance.",
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        },
        {
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          "text": "Present systems, however, can be slow and frustrating to use due to limited haptic capabilities: operators cannot easily feel remote objects as if they were in their own hands.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "2221570",
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          "text": "Additionally, the research team will design and host a tele-touch exhibit to be called \u201cThe Shape Beaming Experience\u201d where students at The Challenger Learning Center in Tallahassee, Florida, can physically interact with students at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.",
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          "text": "Remote presence systems, consisting of operator interfaces coupled to avatar robots, promise new ways of connecting people across the barrier of distance.",
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        {
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          "text": "Present systems, however, can be slow and frustrating to use due to limited haptic capabilities: operators cannot easily feel remote objects as if they were in their own hands.",
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        },
        {
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          "text": "Additionally, the research team will design and host a tele-touch exhibit to be called \u201cThe Shape Beaming Experience\u201d where students at The Challenger Learning Center in Tallahassee, Florida, can physically interact with students at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.",
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        },
        {
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          "index": 2,
          "text": "Among them is the teleoperated robotic platform called LineScout Technology, developed by Hydro-Qu\u00e9bec, which has the capacity to clear most obstacles found on the grid.",
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        {
          "doc_id": "W2040457694",
          "index": 6,
          "text": "This approach reduces costs and stabilizability demands for forceps' manipulator while enables haptic feedback to the surgeons.",
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        },
        {
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          "text": "Supporting a wide variety of interaction styles across a diverse set of people is a significant challenge in human-robot interaction (HRI).",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2055472151",
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          "text": "One player takes the role of a robot avatar and the other a human avatar, each with a different set of capabilities that must be coordinated to overcome challenges and complete the task.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2116134138",
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          "text": "In this respect, robotic systems with autonomous control algorithms have been exploited as the main tool to achieve high accuracy and reliability.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2116134138",
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          "text": "In this work, we address that challenge and present a novel teleoperated robotic system able to steer flexible needles.",
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          "text": "Therefore, the lack of haptic sensation is a major challenge for a telesurgery scenario.",
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          "text": "A thorough insight of telerobotics systems discussing design concepts, enabling technologies (namely robotic manipulation, telecommunications, and vision systems), and potential applications in clinical practice is provided, while existing limitations and future trends are also highlighted.",
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        {
          "doc_id": "W2509798008",
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          "text": "The current status of the field, its significance, the potential, as well as the challenges that lie ahead are thoroughly discussed.",
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        {
          "doc_id": "W2551865091",
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          "text": "While remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are inadequate for the task, a robotic avatar could go where humans cannot and still embody human intelligence and intentions through immersive interfaces.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2793187201",
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          "text": "Developing natural control strategies represents an intriguing challenge in the design of human-robot interface (HRI) systems.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W2898880028",
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          "text": "Due to the lack of transparent and friendly human-robot interaction (HRI) interface, as well as various uncertainties, it is usually a challenge to remotely manipulate a robot to accomplish a complicated task.",
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          "text": "While more immersive than their 2D counterparts, early VR systems were expensive and required specialized hardware.",
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          "text": "These systems are inexpensive, relatively portable, and can be integrated into existing robotic frameworks.",
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          "text": "The different topics in the survey are put in the context of the different challenges and constraints that various types of robots (ground, aerial, surface, or underwater) encounter in different SAR environments (maritime, urban, wilderness, or other post-disaster scenarios).",
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          "text": "However, benefits of recent platforms are undermined by a lack of haptics and residual patient exposure to ionising radiation.",
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        },
        {
          "doc_id": "W4205820809",
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          "text": "Conventional HMIs are based on bulky, rigid, and expensive machines, which mainly focus on robots/machines control, but lack of adequate feedbacks to users, which limit their applications in conducting complicated tasks.",
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          "text": "Teleoperation is one of the oldest applications of human-robot interaction, yet decades later, robots are still difficult to control in a variety of situations, especially when used by non-expert robot operators.",
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          "doc_id": "W4220961636",
          "index": 1,
          "text": "That difficulty has relegated teleoperation to mostly expert-level use cases, though everyday jobs and lives could benefit from teleoperated robots by enabling people to get tasks done remotely.",
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        {
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            "about": true
          },
          {
            "doc_id": "W7118159066",
            "about": false
          },
          {
            "doc_id": "W7118161559",
            "about": false
          },
          {
            "doc_id": "W7118220515",
            "about": false
          },
          {
            "doc_id": "W7147018448",
            "about": true
          }
        ],
        "sampled": 20,
        "about": 13,
        "precision": 0.65
      }
    },
    "unsampled": [
      {
        "source": "federal_register",
        "reason": "the root's series counted nothing in its years"
      }
    ]
  },
  "controls": {
    "boom": {
      "terms": [
        "large language model"
      ],
      "source": "openalex",
      "first_year": 2000,
      "last_year": 2025,
      "counts": [
        2,
        0,
        2,
        4,
        0,
        0,
        3,
        3,
        10,
        5,
        4,
        3,
        12,
        3,
        4,
        6,
        2,
        7,
        15,
        26,
        59,
        204,
        945,
        13605,
        44909,
        88754
      ]
    },
    "mature": {
      "terms": [
        "smoke detector"
      ],
      "source": "openalex",
      "first_year": 2000,
      "last_year": 2025,
      "counts": [
        36,
        20,
        34,
        44,
        45,
        37,
        43,
        39,
        45,
        41,
        71,
        64,
        67,
        49,
        63,
        61,
        73,
        79,
        83,
        96,
        95,
        73,
        102,
        117,
        124,
        132
      ]
    },
    "all_works": {
      "terms": [],
      "source": "openalex",
      "first_year": 2000,
      "last_year": 2025,
      "counts": [
        3795719,
        3804368,
        4425085,
        4705260,
        5112500,
        5463634,
        5959728,
        6488494,
        6981272,
        7558077,
        8103309,
        8694417,
        8972477,
        9419152,
        10002808,
        10158353,
        10551324,
        10417183,
        10362032,
        10734866,
        11417873,
        10724812,
        10206156,
        10844511,
        10796209,
        14806877
      ]
    }
  },
  "run": {
    "barrier_prompt_version": "a5ce1358ce2b",
    "corpora": {
      "humanoid-robots": {
        "fetched": 22524,
        "distinct": 22426,
        "repeated": 98,
        "meta_count": 22510
      },
      "social-robots": {
        "fetched": 10563,
        "distinct": 10532,
        "repeated": 31,
        "meta_count": 10543
      },
      "care-robots": {
        "fetched": 1574,
        "distinct": 1572,
        "repeated": 2,
        "meta_count": 1572
      },
      "teleoperated-robots": {
        "fetched": 1782,
        "distinct": 1780,
        "repeated": 2,
        "meta_count": 1780
      },
      "barcode-scanner": {
        "fetched": 923,
        "distinct": 920,
        "repeated": 3,
        "meta_count": 920
      }
    },
    "cutoff": "2025-12-31",
    "dropped": [],
    "max_tokens": 4096,
    "model": null,
    "no_model": true,
    "prompt_version": "59b43399197f",
    "require_term": null,
    "require_term_note": "no term was required: every barrier document was drawn for the social-robot terms, and abstracts and award texts are never narrowed; no Federal Register rule matched, so no rule body was read",
    "selection_rules": {
      "barriers_openalex": "for each sampled product (social robots, care robots, teleoperated robots), the 10 most-cited works naming its research terms in each of 2010-2014, 2015-2019 and 2020-2025, restricted to works carrying an abstract; text is the inverted index put back into reading order; a document already read for another product is read once, for the first",
      "barriers_nsf": "for each sampled product, the 10 most recent awards for its funding terms, singular and plural, over 2000-2025, newest by award date then id (social robots 10 of 85; care robots and teleoperated robots all 10); text is the award's abstract",
      "barriers_federal_register": "none: the Federal Register holds no final or proposed rule for any robot product's terms",
      "relevance": "the 20 most recent works for the root's research term, and the 20 most recent of the 139 awards for its funding terms, labelled about or not about from the document's title and text; the Federal Register holds no rule for the root's terms, so none was sampled",
      "relevance_fiction": "20 works of the 2,283 in the fiction walk, every 114th by key from the first, a pick with no year replaced by the next dated work; text is the work's own description and subjects; published is 1 January of the catalogue's year; labelled about (a work of fiction in which a humanoid robot or android appears, on the record) and dated (the catalogue's year against a second public record: Wikidata's publication date or the work's Wikipedia article)",
      "gate": "Corpus.as_of(2025-12-31) at sample-build time excluded none of the 200 documents; this run re-gates all 200 through the same cutoff, which is what makes the first pass checkable rather than asserted",
      "relevance_clinical_trials": "the 20 most recent of the 27 studies first posted by the cutoff for the root's testing terms (\"humanoid robot\", \"humanoid robots\"), labelled about or not about from the study's title and brief summary"
    },
    "temperature": null,
    "user_agent": "raven-research/0.1 (mailto:caelan.gander@gmail.com)"
  }
}