Raven: Humanoid robots and their downstream products

§ 01

The reading

The root is Humanoid robots, and 3 products were measured against it. In score order: Social robots 0.39, weak; Care robots 0.28, weak; Teleoperated robots 0.00, weak, clamped. 27 hand-checked barriers were found over 120 documents read for barriers: 17 physical, 1 economic, 3 political, 6 social. Fiction crossed a tenth of its peak (168 works of fiction in 2015) in 1981, research a tenth of its (1,917 works in 2025) in 2002: fiction led by 21 years.

This is a research project presented as one. I assembled what the public record says about one chain of technology, by stated rules rather than by narrative, and scored what it shows. The score is an evidence score over one chain, anchored to two controls. It is not a calibrated probability, and nothing on this page calls it one.

§ 02

Why it is hard

No Federal Register rule reached the barrier sample, so what the regulator says about social robots, care robots and teleoperated robots is unmeasured here.

A sentence that states a real barrier but carries none of the 17 marker words is invisible to the filter, to the model and to the truth alike; the filter's ceiling is inherited whole.

§ 03

The controls

From 2000 to 2025, research on large language model grew about 16,000-fold, smoke detector about 3.0-fold, and all published work about 2.6-fold. A product's growth is placed on that range: 0 grew like smoke detector, 1 like large language model.

The chart, the exact multiples and the formula

Two searches were fixed before the run as anchors: large language model as the boom control and smoke detector as the mature control, against every work in the index. The multiple is the sum of the last 5 years plus one over the sum of the first 5 years plus one.

Fig. 1 · the two controls and the index

Three series on one log axis, 2000–2025; each anchor's multiple is printed below.

The two controls and the index
control	works	2000	2025	multiple
large language model	148,587	2	88,754	16,490.9x
smoke detector	1,733	36	132	3.0x
every work	220,506,496	3,795,719	14,806,877	2.6x

The mature anchor sits at 0 and the boom anchor at 1 by construction; 0 means "grew as the smoke detector literature did", not "flat".

§ 04

The chain

4 capabilities in the order the chain states them, the root first. Each carries its search terms per stage, its research series against the index, and its other stages as counts with their n. A stage no registry covers is marked unmeasured and left out of the score's denominator: unmeasured is not zero.

Humanoid robots

What was searched · 5 of 5 stages measured

fiction: robots, androids
research: humanoid robot
funding: humanoid robot, humanoid robots
testing: humanoid robot, humanoid robots
regulation: humanoid robot

Fiction crossed a tenth of its peak (168 works of fiction in 2015) in 1981, research a tenth of its (1,917 works in 2025) in 2002: fiction led by 21 years.

The earliest work the catalogue dates in 1900–2025 is NeraI Naufraghi Delle Stelle (1900): the catalogue's earliest, not history's. Catalogues fill in toward the present as research indexes do, which pushes a fiction crossing later, so the lead errs short.

Trajectory, 2000–2025 · research grew about 6.3-fold, the index about 2.6-fold

Fig. 2 · Humanoid robots: research against the index

Each line is scaled to its own peak, printed above it; the two are not on one scale, so where they cross means nothing.

Fig. 3 · Humanoid robots: fiction against research

Each line is drawn to its own peak, so the two are not on one scale: the shapes are compared, not the sizes. Fiction is counted by the catalogue's first-publication year, research by publication year, over the same years.

fiction: 2,268 works of fiction in 1900–2025
funding: 139 awards in 2000–2025
testing: 27 studies registered in 2000–2025
regulation: 0 final rules, 0 proposed, in 2000–2025

No edge is measured on this literature; it is what the products' edges are measured against.

Confidence: not scored, the root is what the products are scored against.

Social robots

What was searched · 4 of 5 stages measured

fiction: unmeasured: fiction is searched for the root only: the catalogue files fiction by what a technology is, never by what it is for
research: social robot
funding: social robot, social robots
testing: social robot, social robots
regulation: social robot

Trajectory, 2000–2025 · research grew about 120-fold, the index about 2.6-fold

Fig. 4 · Social robots: research against the index

Each line is scaled to its own peak, printed above it; the two are not on one scale, so where they cross means nothing.

fiction: unmeasured: fiction is searched for the root only: the catalogue files fiction by what a technology is, never by what it is for
funding: 85 awards in 2000–2025
testing: 39 studies registered in 2000–2025
regulation: 0 final rules, 0 proposed, in 2000–2025

Citations · 4 edges measured on this literature

Fig. 5 · edges measured on the literature of Social robots
edge	variant	share	reach	works citing the cited set (of works with references)	coverage (works with references / works)	references (into the cited set / all)	cited works	overlap
barcode scanner (negative control) to Social robots	overlap kept	<0.001	<0.001	2/7,551	7,551/10,532	2/305,063	920	0 removed from the cited side
barcode scanner (negative control) to Social robots	overlap dropped from the citing side	<0.001	<0.001	2/7,551	7,551/10,532	2/305,063	920	0 dropped from the citing side
Humanoid robots to Social robots	overlap kept	0.04	0.58	4,357/7,551	7,551/10,532	13,443/305,063	21,699	727 removed from the cited side
Humanoid robots to Social robots	overlap dropped from the citing side	0.05	0.61	4,237/6,981	6,981/9,805	14,150/284,742	22,426	727 dropped from the citing side

An edge measures intellectual dependency through citations, not causation; both variants are printed because removing the overlap from one side only is a choice, and the negative control shows what a share looks like when there is no dependency at all.

Score · weak · 0.39

Each bar is one component of the score, 0 to 1; the barrier penalty is taken off and drawn to the left. The score is the mean of the determined components, less the penalty.

On growth it sits 0.43 of the way from smoke detector to large language model; hand-checked barriers cost it 0.30.

How the score was worked · 5 components

growth: 0.43
dependency: 0.58
precedence: 1.00
stages: 0.75
barriers: -0.30

growth: 0.43 on a log scale where the mature control sits at 0 (3.0x) and the boom control at 1 (16,491x); smoothed growth 124x against the index's 2.6x
dependency: 0.58 of the product's works with recorded references cite at least one root work (reference coverage 0.72 of 10,532 works; 13,443 of 305,063 references land in the root's 21,699 works)
precedence: the root crossed a tenth of its peak in 2002, before the product in 2012
stages: 3 of 4 measured stages show signal (research 10,543, funding 85, testing 39; regulation 0)
barriers: 3 physical, 3 social on 6 distinct sentences of 6 recorded; component -0.30
score: 0.39 = mean of 4 determined components (0.69) with the barrier penalty (-0.30); labelled weak

Barriers · 6 found in 40 documents read

40 documents were read for barriers; 26 of them yielded a candidate sentence, 43 candidate sentences in all. 6 hand-checked barriers were found in 5 of those documents. The other 35 documents are negatives: 21 substantive, with candidates and none of them a barrier, and 14 trivial, with no candidate at all.

Hand-checked barriers

NSF 2339581 · 2024-07-12physical

Yet, it will be difficult for robots to integrate into daily life without appropriate social skills.

OpenAlex W2001491100 · 2014-08-04physical

Although most of the studies reveal how useful these tools are in therapy, they are generic tools for ASD sufferers in general, which means there is a lack of personalised tools to meet each person's needs.

OpenAlex W3083173864 · 2020-11-27physical

However, it is difficult to generate human-like gestures due to the lack of understanding of how people gesture.

NSF 2350352 · 2024-08-13social

However, such unwritten social norms vary from culture to culture, making a mobile robot developed for one culture difficult to adapt to another and therefore hindering the acceptance of mobile service robots in the new culture.

OpenAlex W2916945592 · 2019-02-26social

Overarching ethical issues and concerns include: harm prevention and various questions of data ethics; a lack of guidance on development of AI applications, their clinical integration and training of health professionals; 'gaps' in ethical and regulatory frameworks; the potential for misuse including using the technologies to replace established services, thereby potentially exacerbating existing health inequalities.

OpenAlex W2916945592 · 2019-02-26social

Specific challenges identified and discussed in the application of embodied AI include: matters of risk-assessment, referrals, and supervision; the need to respect and protect patient autonomy; the role of non-human therapy; transparency in the use of algorithms; and specific concerns regarding long-term effects of these applications on understandings of illness and the human condition.

biological, economic and political barriers do not occur in this truth, so those kinds are unmeasured, not measured as zero.

The automation experiment · baseline scored, model not run

The automation experiment

The baseline is a word list. Whether the model beat it is resolved on recall and on the substantive negatives, never on kind accuracy, which is a ratio over the barriers found and says little at a small n.

Scores against the same truth
record set	precision	recall	kind accuracy	negatives clean	substantive negatives clean
baseline	4/16	4/6	1/4	29/35	15/21

The model layer has not run; its score against the same truth will appear here beside the baseline's.

Mistyped
record set	document	sentence	got	expected
baseline	W2916945592	overarching ethical issues and concerns include: harm prevention and various questions of data ethics; a lack of guidance on development of ai applications, their clinical integration and training of health professionals; 'gaps' in ethical and regulatory frameworks; the potential for misuse including using the technologies to replace established services, thereby potentially exacerbating existing health inequalities.	political	social
baseline	W2916945592	specific challenges identified and discussed in the application of embodied ai include: matters of risk-assessment, referrals, and supervision; the need to respect and protect patient autonomy; the role of non-human therapy; transparency in the use of algorithms; and specific concerns regarding long-term effects of these applications on understandings of illness and the human condition.	biological	social
baseline	W3083173864	however, it is difficult to generate human-like gestures due to the lack of understanding of how people gesture.	biological	physical

Negatives that received a barrier: baseline: 2432393, W2014153923, W2116547831, W2787690100, W3134972302, W4282912956.

Every candidate sentence · 43 sentences

Every candidate sentence

What each layer kept
document	index	sentence	kept by
2339581	27	Yet, it will be difficult for robots to integrate into daily life without appropriate social skills.	truth
2350352	3	However, such unwritten social norms vary from culture to culture, making a mobile robot developed for one culture difficult to adapt to another and therefore hindering the acceptance of mobile service robots in the new culture.	truth, baseline
2350352	10	The cultural adaptiveness developed from this grant can overcome several limitations that existing mobile robot navigation techniques suffer from, including the "frozen robot" problem that impedes efficiency, moving too close to walking humans which compromises safety, and behaving in a way that does not conform with the underlying social norms therefore causing public resistance.	baseline
2402899	24	One common challenge teams face is inequities in communication and task allocation.	rejected by all
2402899	36	These robot behaviors are new and have not yet been tested on robots.	rejected by all
2402900	24	One common challenge teams face is inequities in communication and task allocation.	rejected by all
2402900	36	These robot behaviors are new and have not yet been tested on robots.	rejected by all
2415872	2	This issue is not solely due to lack of access, but due to the approaches used in computing education technology and pedagogy.	rejected by all
2415873	2	This issue is not solely due to lack of access, but due to the approaches used in computing education technology and pedagogy.	rejected by all
2432393	0	The Dialogue and Robots workshop addresses the issues of spoken language processing for human-robot interaction since communication between robots and humans presents multiple novel challenges.	baseline
2432393	1	To address these challenges the team will bring together roboticists, spoken dialogue systems researchers, human-robot interaction researchers, computer scientists, speech scientists and technologists and natural language processing researchers to understand how to use various knowledge sources so that robots can more naturally and effectively interact with people.	baseline
2432393	4	The workshop participants' discussions cover a range of problems, from the basics of the platforms to technical challenges in robotics, human-robot interaction, spoken dialogue systems, and natural language processing.	baseline
2516386	3	This digital platform technology provides caregivers with the ability to engage emotionally with older adults, stimulate memory recall, and ease caregiving challenges.	rejected by all
2516386	10	Unlike traditional conversational systems limited by passive interactions and short-term memory, this technology leverages long-context AI models to dynamically retrieve and organize meaningful content, delivering personalized, sustained, and emotionally engaging conversations.	rejected by all
2535732	5	This technology addresses the challenges by providing well-integrated, immersive, collaborative, and virtual/physical extended reality environments.	rejected by all
2535732	14	The system architecture is comprised of three conceptual levels: node/field kit systems (local and distributed multimodal interaction), network systems software (latency, reliability, bandwidth), and computation (cluster/storage, data, analytic systems, services).	rejected by all
W2001491100	4	Although most of the studies reveal how useful these tools are in therapy, they are generic tools for ASD sufferers in general, which means there is a lack of personalised tools to meet each person's needs.	truth
W2014153923	1	Children with autism have difficulties with social interaction and several studies indicate that they show preference toward interaction with objects, such as computers and robots, rather than with humans.	baseline
W2097128017	4	Each chapter offers a basic introduction to its topic, accessible to students and other newcomers, and then outlines challenges and future perspectives for the benefit of experienced researchers and practitioners in the field.	rejected by all
W2116547831	4	In response to these difficulties, this paper taps into a different conceptual resource in order to be able to grant some degree of moral consideration to some intelligent social robots: it sketches a novel argument for moral consideration based on social relations.	rejected by all
W2116547831	7	Although this relational turn raises many difficult issues and requires more work, this paper provides a rough outline of an alternative approach to moral consideration that can assist us in shaping our relations to intelligent robots and, by extension, to all artificial and biological entities that appear to us as more than instruments for our human purposes.	baseline
W2168676811	7	Finally, the current limitations and future research directions in the fields of developmental robotics, social robotics, and clinical studies are discussed.	rejected by all
W2787690100	1	Of our 10 grand challenges, the first 7 represent underpinning technologies that have a wider impact on all application areas of robotics.	rejected by all
W2787690100	2	For the next two challenges, we have included social robotics and medical robotics as application-specific areas of development to highlight the substantial societal and health impacts that they will bring.	baseline
W2787690100	3	Finally, the last challenge is related to responsible innovation and how ethics and security should be carefully considered as we develop the technology further.	baseline
W2808281222	7	Risk of bias was relatively high in allocation concealment and blinding.	rejected by all
W2808281222	10	Discussion and Implications: Social robots appear to have the potential to improve the well-being of older adults, but conclusions are limited due to the lack of high-quality studies.	rejected by all
W2883165917	7	This work expresses notable advantages of using TENG technology to build a new generation of auditory systems for meeting the challenges in social robotics.	rejected by all
W2887260263	3	We review the potential of social robots in education, discuss the technical challenges, and consider how the robot's appearance and behavior affect learning outcomes.	rejected by all
W2916945592	4	Building on this analysis, it develops a set of preliminary recommendations on how to address ethical and social challenges in current and future applications of embodied AI.	baseline
W2916945592	8	Overarching ethical issues and concerns include: harm prevention and various questions of data ethics; a lack of guidance on development of AI applications, their clinical integration and training of health professionals; 'gaps' in ethical and regulatory frameworks; the potential for misuse including using the technologies to replace established services, thereby potentially exacerbating existing health inequalities.	truth, baseline
W2916945592	9	Specific challenges identified and discussed in the application of embodied AI include: matters of risk-assessment, referrals, and supervision; the need to respect and protect patient autonomy; the role of non-human therapy; transparency in the use of algorithms; and specific concerns regarding long-term effects of these applications on understandings of illness and the human condition.	truth, baseline
W3033293603	5	This finding may challenge some of the existing doubt surrounding the adoption of robotics in social domains of application but more research is needed to fully understand the factors that influence attitudes.	rejected by all
W3083173864	2	However, it is difficult to generate human-like gestures due to the lack of understanding of how people gesture.	truth, baseline
W3112188842	1	Since it is difficult to speak and listen at the same time, the participants need to coordinate who is currently speaking and when the next person can start to speak.	rejected by all
W3134972302	0	Robot navigation in crowded public spaces is a complex task that requires addressing a variety of engineering and human factors challenges.	baseline
W3134972302	1	These challenges have motivated a great amount of research resulting in important developments for the fields of robotics and human-robot interaction over the past three decades.	baseline
W3134972302	2	Despite the significant progress and the massive recent interest, we observe a number of significant remaining challenges that prohibit the seamless deployment of autonomous robots in crowded environments.	rejected by all
W3134972302	3	In this survey article, we organize existing challenges into a set of categories related to broader open problems in robot planning, behavior design, and evaluation methodologies.	rejected by all
W3134972302	5	Our work builds upon and extends earlier survey efforts by (a) taking a critical perspective and diagnosing fundamental limitations of adopted practices in the field and (b) offering constructive feedback and ideas that could inspire research in the field over the coming decade.	rejected by all
W3214839373	1	AI applications provide the solution in many ways to the exponential rise of modern-day challenges, which create difficulties in access to education and learning.	rejected by all
W4224253948	3	Due to the lack of conformity on the standardisation of AI curriculum for early childhood education, this study examines the AI curriculum for kindergarten children using the framework which consists of four key components, including (1) aims, goals, objectives, or declarations of outcome, (2) subject matter, domains, or content, (3) methods or procedure, (4) evaluation and assessment.	rejected by all
W4282912956	0	Human skin perceives physical stimuli applied to the body and mitigates the risk of physical interaction through its soft and resilient mechanical properties.	baseline

Method · 11 settings

Method

selection rule: every sampled document reduced to the sentences carrying one of barrier.py's markers, with no surrounding context, because the sentence is the receipt a reader checks; Federal Register rule bodies narrowed further to the marker sentences that also carry run.require_term, and capped at the first 40 by sentence index, since one rule runs to hundreds of them; abstracts and award texts neither narrowed nor capped
required term: none: rule bodies were narrowed by the markers alone
note on the required term: no term was required: every barrier document was drawn for the social-robot terms, and abstracts and award texts are never narrowed; no Federal Register rule matched, so no rule body was read
barriers_openalex: for each sampled product (social robots, care robots, teleoperated robots), the 10 most-cited works naming its research terms in each of 2010-2014, 2015-2019 and 2020-2025, restricted to works carrying an abstract; text is the inverted index put back into reading order; a document already read for another product is read once, for the first
barriers_nsf: for each sampled product, the 10 most recent awards for its funding terms, singular and plural, over 2000-2025, newest by award date then id (social robots 10 of 85; care robots and teleoperated robots all 10); text is the award's abstract
barriers_federal_register: none: the Federal Register holds no final or proposed rule for any robot product's terms
relevance: the 20 most recent works for the root's research term, and the 20 most recent of the 139 awards for its funding terms, labelled about or not about from the document's title and text; the Federal Register holds no rule for the root's terms, so none was sampled
relevance_fiction: 20 works of the 2,283 in the fiction walk, every 114th by key from the first, a pick with no year replaced by the next dated work; text is the work's own description and subjects; published is 1 January of the catalogue's year; labelled about (a work of fiction in which a humanoid robot or android appears, on the record) and dated (the catalogue's year against a second public record: Wikidata's publication date or the work's Wikipedia article)
gate: Corpus.as_of(2025-12-31) at sample-build time excluded none of the 200 documents; this run re-gates all 200 through the same cutoff, which is what makes the first pass checkable rather than asserted
relevance_clinical_trials: the 20 most recent of the 27 studies first posted by the cutoff for the root's testing terms ("humanoid robot", "humanoid robots"), labelled about or not about from the study's title and brief summary
truth method: docs/atlas-truth-method-humanoid-robots.md: selection rules stated there; a blind second reader annotated every candidate without the first reader's calls or totals and agreed 40/43 (kappa 0.73) for social robots, 46/49 (0.83) for care robots and 38/42 (0.75) for teleoperated robots on barrier-or-not

Care robots

What was searched · 4 of 5 stages measured

fiction: unmeasured: fiction is searched for the root only: the catalogue files fiction by what a technology is, never by what it is for
research: care robot, eldercare robot
funding: care robot, care robots, eldercare robot, eldercare robots
testing: care robot, care robots, eldercare robot, eldercare robots
regulation: care robot, eldercare robot

Trajectory, 2000–2025 · research grew about 23.2-fold, the index about 2.6-fold

Fig. 6 · Care robots: research against the index

Each line is scaled to its own peak, printed above it; the two are not on one scale, so where they cross means nothing.

fiction: unmeasured: fiction is searched for the root only: the catalogue files fiction by what a technology is, never by what it is for
funding: 10 awards in 2000–2025
testing: 3 studies registered in 2000–2025
regulation: 0 final rules, 0 proposed, in 2000–2025

Citations · 4 edges measured on this literature

Fig. 7 · edges measured on the literature of Care robots
edge	variant	share	reach	works citing the cited set (of works with references)	coverage (works with references / works)	references (into the cited set / all)	cited works	overlap
barcode scanner (negative control) to Care robots	overlap kept	<0.001	0.001	1/964	964/1,572	1/28,702	920	0 removed from the cited side
barcode scanner (negative control) to Care robots	overlap dropped from the citing side	<0.001	0.001	1/964	964/1,572	1/28,702	920	0 dropped from the citing side
Humanoid robots to Care robots	overlap kept	0.02	0.34	325/964	964/1,572	647/28,702	22,394	32 removed from the cited side
Humanoid robots to Care robots	overlap dropped from the citing side	0.02	0.33	311/943	943/1,540	611/28,107	22,426	32 dropped from the citing side

Score · weak · 0.28

Each bar is one component of the score, 0 to 1; the barrier penalty is taken off and drawn to the left. The score is the mean of the determined components, less the penalty.

On growth it sits 0.24 of the way from smoke detector to large language model; hand-checked barriers cost it 0.30.

How the score was worked · 5 components

growth: 0.24
dependency: 0.34
precedence: 1.00
stages: 0.75
barriers: -0.30

growth: 0.24 on a log scale where the mature control sits at 0 (3.0x) and the boom control at 1 (16,491x); smoothed growth 23.2x against the index's 2.6x
dependency: 0.34 of the product's works with recorded references cite at least one root work (reference coverage 0.61 of 1,572 works; 647 of 28,702 references land in the root's 22,394 works)
precedence: the root crossed a tenth of its peak in 2002, before the product in 2011
stages: 3 of 4 measured stages show signal (research 1,572, funding 10, testing 3; regulation 0)
barriers: 4 physical, 3 political, 3 social on 10 distinct sentences of 11 recorded; component -0.30
score: 0.28 = mean of 4 determined components (0.58) with the barrier penalty (-0.30); labelled weak

Barriers · 11 found in 40 documents read

40 documents were read for barriers; 23 of them yielded a candidate sentence, 49 candidate sentences in all. 11 hand-checked barriers were found in 10 of those documents. The other 30 documents are negatives: 13 substantive, with candidates and none of them a barrier, and 17 trivial, with no candidate at all.

Hand-checked barriers

NSF 1523767 · 2015-09-03physical

Robots are however very difficult to program to perform new tasks: non-programmers can teach relatively stereotyped action sequences and expert programmers can generate more elaborate action strategies through long programming and debugging processes.

NSF 2246671 · 2023-07-31physical

Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.

NSF 2246672 · 2023-07-31physical

Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used under a constrained laboratory environment.

NSF 2246673 · 2023-07-31physical

Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.

OpenAlex W3153662883 · 2021-04-16physical

So-called care robots are presented as a solution to the nursing crisis, despite doubts about their technological readiness and the lack of concrete usage scenarios in everyday nursing practice.

OpenAlex W1652981668 · 2014-06-02political

Up to now, only general safety standards for machines were available and the lack of a specialized safety standard with detailed requirements has resulted in uncertainty and a relatively high residual risk for manufacturers.

OpenAlex W3139475260 · 2021-03-18political

Besides, the recently enacted European Cybersecurity Act establishes a cybersecurity certification framework, which could be used to define cybersecurity requirements for robots, although concrete cyber-physical implementation requirements are not yet prescribed.

OpenAlex W3139475260 · 2021-03-18political

Cybersecurity and physical product safety legal requirements are governed separately in a dual regulatory framework, presenting a challenge in governing uniformly and adequately cyber-physical systems such as care robots.

OpenAlex W2083250114 · 2014-03-27social

Most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting.

OpenAlex W2789947276 · 2018-03-25social

CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that an intimate human-robot relationship can pose a challenge from the perspective of the acceptance of care robots.

OpenAlex W2801271260 · 2018-05-05social

RESULTS: We conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks.

biological and economic barriers do not occur in this truth, so those kinds are unmeasured, not measured as zero.

The automation experiment · baseline scored, model not run

The automation experiment

Scores against the same truth
record set	precision	recall	kind accuracy	negatives clean	substantive negatives clean
baseline	4/23	4/11	2/4	21/30	4/13

The model layer has not run; its score against the same truth will appear here beside the baseline's.

Mistyped
record set	document	sentence	got	expected
baseline	W2083250114	most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting.	biological	social
baseline	W2801271260	results: we conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks.	political	social

Negatives that received a barrier: baseline: 2344314, W1945345301, W1988821580, W2048596731, W2106373505, W2188154624, W3029798270, W3038265118, W3094783081.

Every candidate sentence · 49 sentences

Every candidate sentence

What each layer kept
document	index	sentence	kept by
1523767	1	Robots are however very difficult to program to perform new tasks: non-programmers can teach relatively stereotyped action sequences and expert programmers can generate more elaborate action strategies through long programming and debugging processes.	truth
1523767	2	Part of the difficulty stems from trying to teach the robot at the level of actions, since the actions to achieve a desired effect depend strongly on details of the environment.	rejected by all
1523767	11	Furthermore, the robot will be aware of its own knowledge and lack of knowledge, and will be able to plan to take actions, including performing experiments and asking humans for further information, to improve its own knowledge about how to behave in its environment.	baseline
1614074	6	The physical presence of robots and their ability to manipulate their physical environment provides both unlimited potential and extreme challenges.	rejected by all
1849287	6	Technically, this integrative project addresses a longer-term vision and intellectual challenge of developing a library approach to robot behavior generation and learning.	rejected by all
2246671	0	"Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.	baseline
2246671	1	Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.	truth
2246671	2	The key challenge for lower limb amputees is that there is no feedback control to the device from the visual information.	rejected by all
2246671	3	As a result, the rest of the body requires extra musculature recruitment to compensate for increased instability, posing a greater risk of falling and degenerative joint issues.	rejected by all
2246672	0	Individuals with lower limb amputation face multiple disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.	baseline
2246672	1	Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used under a constrained laboratory environment.	truth
2246672	2	The key challenge for lower limb amputees is that there is no longer any feedback control to the device from the visual information obtained through the eyes.	rejected by all
2246672	3	As a result, the rest of the body requires extra musculature recruitment to compensate for the increased instability, posing a greater risk of falling and negative joint issues.	rejected by all
2246673	0	Individuals with lower limb amputation face many disadvantages while walking, such as increased strains on the lower back, increased metabolic cost, and gait asymmetry.	baseline
2246673	1	Existing prosthetic robot prescriptions suffer from several deficiencies: they either cannot provide accurate and prompt device control or can only be used in a constrained laboratory environment.	truth
2246673	2	The key challenge for lower limb amputees is that there is no feedback control to the device from the visual information.	rejected by all
2246673	3	As a result, the rest of the body requires extra musculature recruitment to compensate for increased instability, posing a greater risk of falling and degenerative joint issues.	rejected by all
2344314	1	A severe workforce shortage, combined with the high costs associated with eldercare, is forcing nursing homes to close or provide substandard care.	baseline
2344314	17	Successful deployment of support equipment cannot be achieved by advanced design alone.	rejected by all
2344314	18	Product development methodologies will be applied to obtain feedback from end users throughout the project, and strategies will be established for effectively deploying the technology and removing barriers for adoption.	rejected by all
W1652981668	1	This poses a great challenge to the manufacturers of such robots who have to ensure the safety of their systems.	rejected by all
W1652981668	2	Up to now, only general safety standards for machines were available and the lack of a specialized safety standard with detailed requirements has resulted in uncertainty and a relatively high residual risk for manufacturers.	truth
W1945345301	9	Future research could give robots stronger operational roles, use more specific outcome measures, and perform cost-benefit analyses.	baseline
W1988821580	0	The growing number of elderly individuals presents new challenges for society.	rejected by all
W1988821580	2	An attempt to overcome the limitations caused by the lack of human caregivers is the inclusion of assistive technology such as socially active robots.	baseline
W1988821580	7	The discussions were recorded and processed according to six aspects: (i) acceptability and privacy, (ii) pertinence of services, (iii) possible obstacles, (iv) motivation level to use the proposed services, (v) organizational issues and (vi) recommendations.	rejected by all
W2048596731	0	In designing and evaluating human-robot interactions and interfaces, researchers often use a simulated robot due to the high cost of robots and time required to program them.	baseline
W2083250114	7	Most participants felt that robots cannot replace human touch, human interaction, or emotional companionship, and that they cannot/should not replace human workers in the disability setting.	truth, baseline
W2106373505	2	What's more, given the stage of their development and lack of standards provided by the International Organization for Standardization to guide their development, ethics ought to be included into the design process of such robots.	baseline
W2188154624	2	Robots can also reduce operating costs, reduce scrap and are flexible for future changes.	baseline
W2188154624	4	Robotics ’ capabilities have only increased with time, while costs have continued to fall.	baseline
W2188154624	5	Major robot manufacturers are constantly upgrading their robots with increased payload capacity, greater accuracy, increased reach and range of motion, improved speed and acceleration, faster communication with external equipment, better safety features and lower operational costs.	baseline
W2789947276	2	However, personnel-related social psychological barriers to the introduction of care robots have been given very little study.	rejected by all
W2789947276	10	CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that an intimate human-robot relationship can pose a challenge from the perspective of the acceptance of care robots.	truth, baseline
W2801271260	2	OBJECTIVE: The goal of the research was to understand the emerging role of robotics in health care and identify existing and likely future challenges to maximize the benefits associated with robotics and related convergent technologies.	baseline
W2801271260	7	RESULTS: We conducted 21 interviews and these accounts suggested that there are significant opportunities for improving the safety, quality, and efficiency of health care through robotics, but our analysis identified 4 major barriers that need to be effectively negotiated to realize these: (1) no clear pull from professionals and patients, (2) appearance of robots and associated expectations and concerns, (3) disruption of the way work is organized and distributed, and (4) new ethical and legal challenges requiring flexible liability and ethical frameworks.	truth, baseline
W2801271260	8	CONCLUSIONS: Sociotechnical challenges associated with the effective integration of robotic applications in health care settings are likely to be significant, particularly for patient-facing functions.	baseline
W2946772588	4	Stroke patients aged at least 18 years with moderate or severe upper limb functional limitation, between 1 week and 5 years after their first stroke, were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to receive robot-assisted training, EULT, or usual care.	rejected by all
W2946772588	15	INTERPRETATION: Robot-assisted training and EULT did not improve upper limb function after stroke compared with usual care for patients with moderate or severe upper limb functional limitation.	rejected by all
W3029798270	9	Short term, an approach to meeting this challenge is to adopt existing digital health technologies.	baseline
W3038265118	8	We conclude that for AI to be implemented ethically, it cannot transgress the core values of nursing, usurp aspects of caring that can only meaningfully be carried out by human beings, and it must support, open, or improve opportunities for nurses to provide the uniquely human aspects of care.	baseline
W3094783081	2	This electronic system heterogeneously integrates rigid, soft, and liquid materials through a low-cost fabrication method.	baseline
W3132640379	1	We investigate the domestication of robot technology in the context of what in Scandinavia is called “welfare technology” (relating to the terms “gerontechnology” and “Active Assisted Living,”) that especially aims to mitigate older adults´ challenges with living in their own homes.	rejected by all
W3139475260	3	Besides, the recently enacted European Cybersecurity Act establishes a cybersecurity certification framework, which could be used to define cybersecurity requirements for robots, although concrete cyber-physical implementation requirements are not yet prescribed.	truth
W3139475260	4	In this article, we illustrate cybersecurity challenges and their subsequent safety implications with the concrete example of care robots.	rejected by all
W3139475260	8	While the latest European policymaking efforts on robot regulation acknowledge the importance of cybersecurity, many details, and their impact on user safety have not yet been addressed in depth.	baseline
W3139475260	10	Cybersecurity and physical product safety legal requirements are governed separately in a dual regulatory framework, presenting a challenge in governing uniformly and adequately cyber-physical systems such as care robots.	truth, baseline
W3139475260	11	We conceptualize and discuss the challenges of regulating cyber-physical systems’ security with the current dual framework, particularly the lack of mandatory certifications.	baseline
W3153662883	1	So-called care robots are presented as a solution to the nursing crisis, despite doubts about their technological readiness and the lack of concrete usage scenarios in everyday nursing practice.	truth

Method · 11 settings

Method

selection rule: every sampled document reduced to the sentences carrying one of barrier.py's markers, with no surrounding context, because the sentence is the receipt a reader checks; Federal Register rule bodies narrowed further to the marker sentences that also carry run.require_term, and capped at the first 40 by sentence index, since one rule runs to hundreds of them; abstracts and award texts neither narrowed nor capped
required term: none: rule bodies were narrowed by the markers alone
note on the required term: no term was required: every barrier document was drawn for the social-robot terms, and abstracts and award texts are never narrowed; no Federal Register rule matched, so no rule body was read
barriers_openalex: for each sampled product (social robots, care robots, teleoperated robots), the 10 most-cited works naming its research terms in each of 2010-2014, 2015-2019 and 2020-2025, restricted to works carrying an abstract; text is the inverted index put back into reading order; a document already read for another product is read once, for the first
barriers_nsf: for each sampled product, the 10 most recent awards for its funding terms, singular and plural, over 2000-2025, newest by award date then id (social robots 10 of 85; care robots and teleoperated robots all 10); text is the award's abstract
barriers_federal_register: none: the Federal Register holds no final or proposed rule for any robot product's terms
relevance: the 20 most recent works for the root's research term, and the 20 most recent of the 139 awards for its funding terms, labelled about or not about from the document's title and text; the Federal Register holds no rule for the root's terms, so none was sampled
relevance_fiction: 20 works of the 2,283 in the fiction walk, every 114th by key from the first, a pick with no year replaced by the next dated work; text is the work's own description and subjects; published is 1 January of the catalogue's year; labelled about (a work of fiction in which a humanoid robot or android appears, on the record) and dated (the catalogue's year against a second public record: Wikidata's publication date or the work's Wikipedia article)
gate: Corpus.as_of(2025-12-31) at sample-build time excluded none of the 200 documents; this run re-gates all 200 through the same cutoff, which is what makes the first pass checkable rather than asserted
relevance_clinical_trials: the 20 most recent of the 27 studies first posted by the cutoff for the root's testing terms ("humanoid robot", "humanoid robots"), labelled about or not about from the study's title and brief summary
truth method: docs/atlas-truth-method-humanoid-robots.md: selection rules stated there; a blind second reader annotated every candidate without the first reader's calls or totals and agreed 40/43 (kappa 0.73) for social robots, 46/49 (0.83) for care robots and 38/42 (0.75) for teleoperated robots on barrier-or-not

Teleoperated robots

What was searched · 4 of 5 stages measured

fiction: unmeasured: fiction is searched for the root only: the catalogue files fiction by what a technology is, never by what it is for
research: teleoperated robot, robot avatar, avatar robot
funding: teleoperated robot, teleoperated robots, robot avatar, robot avatars, avatar robot, avatar robots
testing: teleoperated robot, teleoperated robots, robot avatar, robot avatars, avatar robot, avatar robots
regulation: teleoperated robot, robot avatar, avatar robot

Trajectory, 2000–2025 · research grew about 7.4-fold, the index about 2.6-fold

Fig. 8 · Teleoperated robots: research against the index

Each line is scaled to its own peak, printed above it; the two are not on one scale, so where they cross means nothing.

fiction: unmeasured: fiction is searched for the root only: the catalogue files fiction by what a technology is, never by what it is for
funding: 10 awards in 2000–2025
testing: 0 studies registered in 2000–2025
regulation: 0 final rules, 0 proposed, in 2000–2025

Citations · 4 edges measured on this literature

Fig. 9 · edges measured on the literature of Teleoperated robots
edge	variant	share	reach	works citing the cited set (of works with references)	coverage (works with references / works)	references (into the cited set / all)	cited works	overlap
barcode scanner (negative control) to Teleoperated robots	overlap kept	0.00	0.00	0/1,284	1,284/1,780	0/36,013	920	0 removed from the cited side
barcode scanner (negative control) to Teleoperated robots	overlap dropped from the citing side	0.00	0.00	0/1,284	1,284/1,780	0/36,013	920	0 dropped from the citing side
Humanoid robots to Teleoperated robots	overlap kept	0.03	0.28	361/1,284	1,284/1,780	942/36,013	22,349	77 removed from the cited side
Humanoid robots to Teleoperated robots	overlap dropped from the citing side	0.02	0.27	333/1,232	1,232/1,703	787/34,627	22,426	77 dropped from the citing side

Score · weak · 0.00

Each bar is one component of the score, 0 to 1; the barrier penalty is taken off and drawn to the left. The score is the mean of the determined components, less the penalty.

On growth it sits 0.10 of the way from smoke detector to large language model; hand-checked barriers cost it 0.35.

How the score was worked · 5 components

growth: 0.10
dependency: 0.28
precedence: 0.50
stages: 0.50
barriers: -0.35

growth: 0.10 on a log scale where the mature control sits at 0 (3.0x) and the boom control at 1 (16,491x); smoothed growth 7.4x against the index's 2.6x
dependency: 0.28 of the product's works with recorded references cite at least one root work (reference coverage 0.72 of 1,780 works; 942 of 36,013 references land in the root's 22,349 works)
precedence: the root and the product both crossed a tenth of their peak in 2002
stages: 2 of 4 measured stages show signal (research 1,780, funding 10; testing 0, regulation 0)
barriers: 8 physical, 1 economic on 9 distinct sentences of 10 recorded; component -0.35
score: 0.00 = mean of 4 determined components (0.35) with the barrier penalty (-0.35), clamped at 0.00; labelled weak

Barriers · 10 found in 40 documents read

40 documents were read for barriers; 23 of them yielded a candidate sentence, 42 candidate sentences in all. 10 hand-checked barriers were found in 10 of those documents. The other 30 documents are negatives: 13 substantive, with candidates and none of them a barrier, and 17 trivial, with no candidate at all.

Hand-checked barriers

NSF 2221570 · 2022-08-19physical

Present systems, however, can be slow and frustrating to use due to limited haptic capabilities: operators cannot easily feel remote objects as if they were in their own hands.

NSF 2221571 · 2022-08-19physical

Present systems, however, can be slow and frustrating to use due to limited haptic capabilities: operators cannot easily feel remote objects as if they were in their own hands.

OpenAlex W2294215545 · 2015-12-25physical

Therefore, the lack of haptic sensation is a major challenge for a telesurgery scenario.

OpenAlex W2793187201 · 2018-02-23physical

Developing natural control strategies represents an intriguing challenge in the design of human-robot interface (HRI) systems.

OpenAlex W2898880028 · 2018-10-29physical

Due to the lack of transparent and friendly human-robot interaction (HRI) interface, as well as various uncertainties, it is usually a challenge to remotely manipulate a robot to accomplish a complicated task.

OpenAlex W3134077239 · 2021-03-11physical

However, benefits of recent platforms are undermined by a lack of haptics and residual patient exposure to ionising radiation.

OpenAlex W4205820809 · 2022-01-14physical

Conventional HMIs are based on bulky, rigid, and expensive machines, which mainly focus on robots/machines control, but lack of adequate feedbacks to users, which limit their applications in conducting complicated tasks.

OpenAlex W4220961636 · 2022-03-29physical

Teleoperation is one of the oldest applications of human-robot interaction, yet decades later, robots are still difficult to control in a variety of situations, especially when used by non-expert robot operators.

OpenAlex W4223931121 · 2022-04-13physical

Despite the advantages, robotic applications to endovascular neurosurgery have remained largely unexplored because of technical challenges such as the miniaturization of robotic devices that can reach the complex and tortuous vasculature of the brain.

NSF 1556109 · 2016-04-14economic

Despite advances in sensing and machinery, significant challenges persist which have plagued the industry with high costs and unacceptable downtime, as well as safety risks.

biological, political and social barriers do not occur in this truth, so those kinds are unmeasured, not measured as zero.

The automation experiment · baseline scored, model not run

The automation experiment

Scores against the same truth
record set	precision	recall	kind accuracy	negatives clean	substantive negatives clean
baseline	6/21	6/10	2/6	21/30	4/13

The model layer has not run; its score against the same truth will appear here beside the baseline's.

Mistyped
record set	document	sentence	got	expected
baseline	W2793187201	developing natural control strategies represents an intriguing challenge in the design of human-robot interface (hri) systems.	biological	physical
baseline	W2898880028	due to the lack of transparent and friendly human-robot interaction (hri) interface, as well as various uncertainties, it is usually a challenge to remotely manipulate a robot to accomplish a complicated task.	biological	physical
baseline	W4205820809	conventional hmis are based on bulky, rigid, and expensive machines, which mainly focus on robots/machines control, but lack of adequate feedbacks to users, which limit their applications in conducting complicated tasks.	economic	physical
baseline	W4220961636	teleoperation is one of the oldest applications of human-robot interaction, yet decades later, robots are still difficult to control in a variety of situations, especially when used by non-expert robot operators.	biological	physical

Negatives that received a barrier: baseline: 1518652, 1547178, 1836819, 1836932, W2040457694, W2055472151, W2551865091, W2909246528, W4405784982.

Every candidate sentence · 42 sentences

Every candidate sentence

What each layer kept
document	index	sentence	kept by
1518652	2	The proposed system will both reduce the risk of infection to health care workers, and will increase the quality of care that patients receive: by reducing the time requirements of donning and doffing protective clothing, health care professionals can concentrate on patient care.	baseline
1547178	8	Thermal IR imaging+eye tracking identifies when deaf babies who cannot yet produce language are in a peaked arousal state and ready to learn.	baseline
1556109	3	Despite advances in sensing and machinery, significant challenges persist which have plagued the industry with high costs and unacceptable downtime, as well as safety risks.	truth, baseline
1556109	8	Economic benefits include reduced costs, new employment opportunities, competitive advantages and contributions to the national technological infrastructure in subsea operations.	baseline
1556109	9	This Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase 2 project will address fundamental challenges of connecting higher-dimensional data from remote environments to intuitive controls.	baseline
1836819	3	Reinforcement learning algorithms are not yet mature enough to guarantee performance when applied to control of CPS.	rejected by all
1836819	4	In light of these limitations, this project aims to lay the theoretical and computational foundation to certify reinforcement learning algorithms so that they may be deployed in society with high confidence.	rejected by all
1836819	5	This project will certify reinforcement learning algorithms that compute optimal control policies in systems with non-classical dynamics and non-classical costs.	baseline
1836932	3	Reinforcement learning algorithms are not yet mature enough to guarantee performance when applied to control of CPS.	rejected by all
1836932	4	In light of these limitations, this project aims to lay the theoretical and computational foundation to certify reinforcement learning algorithms so that they may be deployed in society with high confidence.	rejected by all
1836932	5	This project will certify reinforcement learning algorithms that compute optimal control policies in systems with non-classical dynamics and non-classical costs.	baseline
2221570	0	Remote presence systems, consisting of operator interfaces coupled to avatar robots, promise new ways of connecting people across the barrier of distance.	rejected by all
2221570	2	Present systems, however, can be slow and frustrating to use due to limited haptic capabilities: operators cannot easily feel remote objects as if they were in their own hands.	truth
2221570	7	Additionally, the research team will design and host a tele-touch exhibit to be called “The Shape Beaming Experience” where students at The Challenger Learning Center in Tallahassee, Florida, can physically interact with students at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.	rejected by all
2221571	0	Remote presence systems, consisting of operator interfaces coupled to avatar robots, promise new ways of connecting people across the barrier of distance.	rejected by all
2221571	2	Present systems, however, can be slow and frustrating to use due to limited haptic capabilities: operators cannot easily feel remote objects as if they were in their own hands.	truth
2221571	7	Additionally, the research team will design and host a tele-touch exhibit to be called “The Shape Beaming Experience” where students at The Challenger Learning Center in Tallahassee, Florida, can physically interact with students at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.	rejected by all
W2022427525	2	Among them is the teleoperated robotic platform called LineScout Technology, developed by Hydro-Québec, which has the capacity to clear most obstacles found on the grid.	rejected by all
W2040457694	6	This approach reduces costs and stabilizability demands for forceps' manipulator while enables haptic feedback to the surgeons.	baseline
W2055472151	0	Supporting a wide variety of interaction styles across a diverse set of people is a significant challenge in human-robot interaction (HRI).	baseline
W2055472151	3	One player takes the role of a robot avatar and the other a human avatar, each with a different set of capabilities that must be coordinated to overcome challenges and complete the task.	baseline
W2116134138	1	In this respect, robotic systems with autonomous control algorithms have been exploited as the main tool to achieve high accuracy and reliability.	rejected by all
W2116134138	4	In this work, we address that challenge and present a novel teleoperated robotic system able to steer flexible needles.	rejected by all
W2294215545	3	Therefore, the lack of haptic sensation is a major challenge for a telesurgery scenario.	truth
W2509798008	2	A thorough insight of telerobotics systems discussing design concepts, enabling technologies (namely robotic manipulation, telecommunications, and vision systems), and potential applications in clinical practice is provided, while existing limitations and future trends are also highlighted.	rejected by all
W2509798008	8	The current status of the field, its significance, the potential, as well as the challenges that lie ahead are thoroughly discussed.	rejected by all
W2551865091	3	While remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are inadequate for the task, a robotic avatar could go where humans cannot and still embody human intelligence and intentions through immersive interfaces.	baseline
W2793187201	0	Developing natural control strategies represents an intriguing challenge in the design of human-robot interface (HRI) systems.	truth, baseline
W2898880028	0	Due to the lack of transparent and friendly human-robot interaction (HRI) interface, as well as various uncertainties, it is usually a challenge to remotely manipulate a robot to accomplish a complicated task.	truth, baseline
W2909246528	1	While more immersive than their 2D counterparts, early VR systems were expensive and required specialized hardware.	baseline
W2909246528	3	These systems are inexpensive, relatively portable, and can be integrated into existing robotic frameworks.	rejected by all
W3096656822	5	The different topics in the survey are put in the context of the different challenges and constraints that various types of robots (ground, aerial, surface, or underwater) encounter in different SAR environments (maritime, urban, wilderness, or other post-disaster scenarios).	rejected by all
W3134077239	3	However, benefits of recent platforms are undermined by a lack of haptics and residual patient exposure to ionising radiation.	truth, baseline
W4205820809	2	Conventional HMIs are based on bulky, rigid, and expensive machines, which mainly focus on robots/machines control, but lack of adequate feedbacks to users, which limit their applications in conducting complicated tasks.	truth, baseline
W4220961636	0	Teleoperation is one of the oldest applications of human-robot interaction, yet decades later, robots are still difficult to control in a variety of situations, especially when used by non-expert robot operators.	truth, baseline
W4220961636	1	That difficulty has relegated teleoperation to mostly expert-level use cases, though everyday jobs and lives could benefit from teleoperated robots by enabling people to get tasks done remotely.	rejected by all
W4220961636	2	Research has made great progress by improving the capabilities of robots, and exploring a variety of interfaces to improve operator performance, but many non-expert applications of teleoperation are limited by the operator's ability to understand and control the robot effectively.	rejected by all
W4220961636	3	We discuss the state of the art of user-centered research for teleoperation interfaces along with challenges teleoperation researchers face and discuss how an increased focus on human-centered teleoperation research can help push teleoperation into more everyday situations.	baseline
W4223931121	1	Despite the advantages, robotic applications to endovascular neurosurgery have remained largely unexplored because of technical challenges such as the miniaturization of robotic devices that can reach the complex and tortuous vasculature of the brain.	truth
W4223931121	7	Our system could enable safer and quicker access to hard-to-reach lesions while minimizing the radiation exposure to physicians and open the possibility of remote procedural services to address challenges in current stroke systems of care.	baseline
W4405784982	3	In this paper, we aim to lower the barrier to collecting large and high-quality human demonstration data by proposing a GEneraL framework for building LOw-cost and intuitive teleoperation systems for robotic manipulation (GELLO).	baseline
W4405784982	6	Through an extensive user study, we show that GELLO enables more reliable and efficient demonstration collection compared to other cost efficient teleoperation devices commonly used in the imitation learning literature such as virtual reality controllers and 3D spacemouses.	baseline

Method · 11 settings

Method

selection rule: every sampled document reduced to the sentences carrying one of barrier.py's markers, with no surrounding context, because the sentence is the receipt a reader checks; Federal Register rule bodies narrowed further to the marker sentences that also carry run.require_term, and capped at the first 40 by sentence index, since one rule runs to hundreds of them; abstracts and award texts neither narrowed nor capped
required term: none: rule bodies were narrowed by the markers alone
note on the required term: no term was required: every barrier document was drawn for the social-robot terms, and abstracts and award texts are never narrowed; no Federal Register rule matched, so no rule body was read
barriers_openalex: for each sampled product (social robots, care robots, teleoperated robots), the 10 most-cited works naming its research terms in each of 2010-2014, 2015-2019 and 2020-2025, restricted to works carrying an abstract; text is the inverted index put back into reading order; a document already read for another product is read once, for the first
barriers_nsf: for each sampled product, the 10 most recent awards for its funding terms, singular and plural, over 2000-2025, newest by award date then id (social robots 10 of 85; care robots and teleoperated robots all 10); text is the award's abstract
barriers_federal_register: none: the Federal Register holds no final or proposed rule for any robot product's terms
relevance: the 20 most recent works for the root's research term, and the 20 most recent of the 139 awards for its funding terms, labelled about or not about from the document's title and text; the Federal Register holds no rule for the root's terms, so none was sampled
relevance_fiction: 20 works of the 2,283 in the fiction walk, every 114th by key from the first, a pick with no year replaced by the next dated work; text is the work's own description and subjects; published is 1 January of the catalogue's year; labelled about (a work of fiction in which a humanoid robot or android appears, on the record) and dated (the catalogue's year against a second public record: Wikidata's publication date or the work's Wikipedia article)
gate: Corpus.as_of(2025-12-31) at sample-build time excluded none of the 200 documents; this run re-gates all 200 through the same cutoff, which is what makes the first pass checkable rather than asserted
relevance_clinical_trials: the 20 most recent of the 27 studies first posted by the cutoff for the root's testing terms ("humanoid robot", "humanoid robots"), labelled about or not about from the study's title and brief summary
truth method: docs/atlas-truth-method-humanoid-robots.md: selection rules stated there; a blind second reader annotated every candidate without the first reader's calls or totals and agreed 40/43 (kappa 0.73) for social robots, 46/49 (0.83) for care robots and 38/42 (0.75) for teleoperated robots on barrier-or-not

§ 05

The two cohorts

A product whose barriers were never read takes a penalty of zero, which is the same number a clean sample takes, so these two groups are never ranked against each other.

Barriers sampled

Social robots: 0.39, weak
Care robots: 0.28, weak
Teleoperated robots: 0.00, weak

Barriers unsampled

none in this run

an evidence score over one chain, anchored to two controls; not a calibrated probability

§ 06

Relevance

The run's note on the sample: the sample was drawn for the root's terms, so a label says whether a document is about the root, not whether it is about any one product.

The root here is Humanoid robots.

ClinicalTrials.gov

14/20 about the root, precision 0.70.

20 documents labelled

NCT03314415: not about
NCT03818217: about
NCT03823066: about
NCT04003701: about
NCT04627909: about
NCT04832373: about
NCT05152433: not about
NCT05178992: not about
NCT05238246: about
NCT05423899: about
NCT05788133: about
NCT06487611: about
NCT06520033: about
NCT06556329: not about
NCT06571838: not about
NCT06805916: about
NCT06855446: about
NCT06881407: about
NCT07214896: about
NCT07283211: not about

NSF

11/20 about the root, precision 0.55.

20 documents labelled

2005430: not about
2024775: about
2043339: about
2047867: not about
2128568: not about
2220924: about
2235042: about
2235043: about
2312967: not about
2339076: not about
2346323: about
2346324: about
2346325: about
2346701: not about
2348931: about
2406112: not about
2427036: about
2427788: about
2432516: not about
2512805: not about

Open Library

3/20 about the root, precision 0.15.

Dates checked against a second record: 4 agree, 3 disagree, 13 had no second record.

20 documents labelled

OL100111W: not about, date agrees
OL15150955W: not about, date unchecked
OL16132295W: not about, date unchecked
OL1718654W: not about, date unchecked
OL17500626W: not about, date agrees
OL17887741W: not about, date unchecked
OL1958576W: not about, date unchecked
OL19764201W: not about, date unchecked
OL20001670W: about, date agrees
OL20100784W: not about, date unchecked
OL20914264W: not about, date unchecked
OL21447609W: about, date disagrees
OL24272282W: not about, date disagrees
OL2627935W: not about, date agrees
OL28376435W: not about, date unchecked
OL34697136W: not about, date disagrees
OL39860679W: not about, date unchecked
OL4799619W: not about, date unchecked
OL5845462W: not about, date unchecked
OL8133385W: about, date unchecked

OpenAlex

13/20 about the root, precision 0.65.

20 documents labelled

W7117530735: about
W7117676122: not about
W7117735659: not about
W7117744333: about
W7117745613: not about
W7117755680: about
W7117871666: about
W7117896569: about
W7117964931: about
W7117965740: about
W7117970709: not about
W7117973341: about
W7118051550: about
W7118052252: about
W7118052446: about
W7118123107: about
W7118159066: not about
W7118161559: not about
W7118220515: not about
W7147018448: about

Federal Register: not sampled, the root's series counted nothing in its years.

Documents · 200 documents read

Every document the run read
document	source	published	title	read for	selection	candidates
0216381	NSF	2002-07-31	MRI: Acquisition of a Universal Wireless Communications System Emulator	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 10	0
1408672	NSF	2014-06-18	CHS: Medium: The Use of Robots as Intermediaries to Gather Sensitive Information from Children	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 9	0
1449155	NSF	2014-07-23	EAGER: Toward Ethical Intelligent Autonomous Systems, A Case-Supported Principle-Based Behavior Paradigm	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 10	0
1518652	NSF	2014-12-16	RAPID: Teleoperated Robot Systems in Support of Health Care Workers	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 8	1
1523767	NSF	2015-09-03	NRI: Learning to Plan for New Robot Manipulation Tasks	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 9	3
1547178	NSF	2015-08-25	INSPIRE: The RAVE Revolution for Children with Minimal Language Experience During Sensitive Periods of Brain and Language Development	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 7	1
1556109	NSF	2016-04-14	SBIR Phase II: Collaborative Subsea Manipulation Interface	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 5	3
1565529	NSF	2016-03-22	CRII: CPS: Provably-safe Interventions for Human-Cyber-Physical Systems (HCPS)	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 6	0
1614074	NSF	2016-08-09	EAPSI:Design of Polite Service Robots with Human-Like Approaching Behavior	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 8	1
1836819	NSF	2018-08-29	CPS: Medium: Collaborative Research: Certifiable reinforcement learning for cyber-physical systems	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 4	3
1836932	NSF	2018-08-29	CPS: Medium: Collaborative Research: Certifiable reinforcement learning for cyber-physical systems	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 3	3
1849287	NSF	2019-05-17	S&AS: INT: Smart And Autonomous Systems For Repair And Improvisation	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 7	1
2005430	NSF	2020-08-13	CHS: Small: An Analysis-and-Synthesis Framework for Small Group Conversations	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 20	0
2024775	NSF	2020-09-14	NRI: FND: Immersive whole-body teleoperation of wheeled humanoid robots for dynamic mobil manipulation	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 19	0
2037261	NSF	2020-07-15	RAPID: Collaborative Research: The Transformation of Essential Work: Managing the Introduction of AI in Response to COVID-19	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 6	0
2037348	NSF	2020-07-15	RAPID: Collaborative Research: The Transformation of Essential Work: Managing the Introduction of AI in Response to COVID-19	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 5	0
2043339	NSF	2021-03-18	CAREER: Remote Control of Humanoid Robot Locomotion using Human Whole-body Movement and Mutual Adaptation	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 18	0
2047867	NSF	2021-03-31	CAREER:The Uncanny Valley in Socially Appropriate Haptic Interactions	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 17	0
2128568	NSF	2021-08-10	Asymmetric Gait Generation for Legged Locomotion in Complex Environments via Off-Line Model Reduction and Real-Time Optimal Control	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 16	0
2220924	NSF	2022-09-09	NRI: A Novel Framework for the Hardware and Control Co-design of Dynamic Humanoid Robots with Electric Motors	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 15	0
2221570	NSF	2022-08-19	Collaborative Research: NRI: Shape-Based Remote Manipulation	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 2	3
2221571	NSF	2022-08-19	Collaborative Research: NRI: Shape-Based Remote Manipulation	barriers	NSF award for the teleoperated-robots funding terms, newest rank 1	3
2235042	NSF	2023-04-10	Collaborative Research: CCRI: Grand: Quori 2.0: Uniting, Broadening, and Sustaining a Research Community Around a Modular Social Robot Platform	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 14	0
2235043	NSF	2023-04-10	Collaborative Research: CCRI: Grand: Quori 2.0: Uniting, Broadening, and Sustaining a Research Community Around a Modular Social Robot Platform	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 13	0
2246671	NSF	2023-07-31	Collaborative Research: An Integrated, Proactive, and Ubiquitous Prosthetic Care Robot for People with Lower Limb Amputation: Sensing, Device Designing, and Control	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 4	4
2246672	NSF	2023-07-31	Collaborative Research: An Integrated, Proactive, and Ubiquitous Prosthetic Care Robot for People with Lower Limb Amputation: Sensing, Device Designing, and Control	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 3	4
2246673	NSF	2023-07-31	Collaborative Research: An Integrated, Proactive, and Ubiquitous Prosthetic Care Robot for People with Lower Limb Amputation: Sensing, Device Designing, and Control	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 2	4
2312967	NSF	2023-06-20	RI: Medium: From Vision to Dynamics	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 12	0
2339076	NSF	2024-03-06	CAREER: Concurrent Robot Learning from Simulation and Real for Closing the Sim-to-real Gap	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 9	0
2339581	NSF	2024-07-12	CAREER: Designing Socially Intelligent Robots that Collaborate with Groups of People	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 9	1
2344314	NSF	2024-01-09	NSF Convergence Accelerator Track M: Soft Growing Robots for Mobility Support	barriers	NSF award for the care-robots funding terms, newest rank 1	3
2346323	NSF	2024-07-31	Collaborative Research: CIRC: Planning-C: An Infrastructure for General-Purpose Learning-Enabled Humanoids	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 7	0
2346324	NSF	2024-07-31	Collaborative Research: CIRC: Planning-C: An Infrastructure for General-Purpose Learning-Enabled Humanoids	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 6	0
2346325	NSF	2024-07-31	Collaborative Research: CIRC: Planning-C: An Infrastructure for General-Purpose Learning-Enabled Humanoids	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 5	0
2346495	NSF	2024-08-21	CIRC: Planning-C: Embodied Social Intelligence Community Research Infrastructure	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 5	0
2346701	NSF	2023-12-06	CC* Regional Computing: The California State University System Technology Infrastructure for Data Exploration	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 11	0
2348931	NSF	2024-01-25	I-Corps: Networked Autonomous-humanoid Security Robot	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 10	0
2350352	NSF	2024-08-13	NSF-BSF: Culturally Adaptive Social Robot Navigation	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 6	2
2402899	NSF	2024-09-03	Collaborative Research: HCC: Medium: Designing Social Robots to Promote Equity in Collaborative Teams	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 4	2
2402900	NSF	2024-09-03	Collaborative Research: HCC: Medium: Designing Social Robots to Promote Equity in Collaborative Teams	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 3	2
2406112	NSF	2024-07-29	Catalyst Research on Broadening Participation in STEM - Employing Neo-constructivism Transitions through Educational Robotics (ENTER) into STEM: Building the Women STEM Workforce	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 8	0
2415872	NSF	2024-08-07	Collaborative Research: Learner-Co-Created Social Robots for Supporting Girls’ Development of AI and Computing Skills	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 8	1
2415873	NSF	2024-08-07	Collaborative Research: Learner-Co-Created Social Robots for Supporting Girls’ Development of AI and Computing Skills	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 7	1
2427036	NSF	2024-08-15	Hardware and Control Co-Design of Compliant Actuators for Energy-Efficient Humanoid Robots	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 3	0
2427788	NSF	2024-08-07	Rapid Perception-Based Terrain-Adaptive Agile Locomotion of a Humanoid Robot	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 4	0
2432393	NSF	2024-05-19	Collaborative Research: Conference: Dialogue and Robots	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 10	3
2432516	NSF	2024-09-10	STTR Phase I: Novel Fluorescence-Based Force Sensor for High-Resolution Tactile Sensing	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 2	0
2512805	NSF	2025-08-18	Convergence Analysis and Efficient New Framework for Sampling-Based Optimal Control	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots award rank 1	0
2516386	NSF	2025-05-12	I-Corps: Translation Potential of an Interactive SocialBot for Reminiscence Therapy	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 2	2
2535732	NSF	2025-08-15	I-Corps: Translation potential for experiential supercomputing	barriers	NSF award for the social-robots funding terms, newest rank 1	2
NCT03314415	ClinicalTrials.gov	2017-10-19	Pilot Study on Weight Loss With Robotic Assistance	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 20	0
NCT03818217	ClinicalTrials.gov	2019-01-28	Effects of a Robot on Physical and Psychosocial Outcomes of Persons With Dementia and Their Social Environment at Home	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 19	0
NCT03823066	ClinicalTrials.gov	2019-01-30	Experience With a Robot for Home Care and Its Acceptance by People With Dementia, Caregivers and Dementia Trainers	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 18	0
NCT04003701	ClinicalTrials.gov	2019-07-01	Using a Humanoid Robot to Distract Children With Chronic Conditions Undergoing Painful Procedures	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 17	0
NCT04627909	ClinicalTrials.gov	2020-11-13	Robot Therapy in Pediatric Emergency	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 16	0
NCT04832373	ClinicalTrials.gov	2021-04-05	Assessment of the Acceptability of a Humanoid Robot at Home for Children With Cochlear Implants - H2R2	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 15	0
NCT05152433	ClinicalTrials.gov	2021-12-09	Evidence-Based Robot-Assistant in Neurorehabilitation	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 14	0
NCT05178992	ClinicalTrials.gov	2022-01-05	Use of Socially Assistive Robots for Long Term Care Older Adults With Cognitive Impairment and Apathy	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 13	0
NCT05238246	ClinicalTrials.gov	2022-02-14	Effect of a Humanoid Robot on Dental Anxiety in Children	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 12	0
NCT05423899	ClinicalTrials.gov	2022-06-21	Humanoid Robot vs Treatment as Usual for Loneliness	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 11	0
NCT05788133	ClinicalTrials.gov	2023-03-28	The Role of Humanoid Robot in Neuropsychological Assessment and Cognitive Training.	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 10	0
NCT06487611	ClinicalTrials.gov	2024-07-05	The Presence of Humanoid Robot With Older Adults at Homes	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 9	0
NCT06520033	ClinicalTrials.gov	2024-07-25	Robotics as a Useful Tool to Improve the Hydration of the Elderly	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 8	0
NCT06556329	ClinicalTrials.gov	2024-08-16	Canada-UK AI Study	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 7	0
NCT06571838	ClinicalTrials.gov	2024-08-26	DAISY- Diagnostic AI System for Robotic and Automated Triage and Assessment	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 6	0
NCT06805916	ClinicalTrials.gov	2025-02-03	Promoting Communication in Minimally Verbal Autistic Children with Social Robot	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 5	0
NCT06855446	ClinicalTrials.gov	2025-03-03	Interactive Mirroring Games wIth sOcial Robot (IOGIOCO) and Robotic System Adapted Into a Clinical Scale (RISCALE)	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 4	0
NCT06881407	ClinicalTrials.gov	2025-03-18	Effect of a Humanoid Robot With Virtual Reality Games to Train Arm Function in Children With Cerebral Palsy - THRIVE Trial	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 3	0
NCT07214896	ClinicalTrials.gov	2025-10-09	Deployment and Evaluation of Humanoid Robotics in Coalition-Aligned Clinical Care Settings	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 2	0
NCT07283211	ClinicalTrials.gov	2025-12-15	NAO Robot in Pediatric Occupational Therapy	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots study rank 1	0
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W1493358258	OpenAlex	2013-03-28	Socially Intelligent Agents: Creating Relationships With Computers And Robots	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 5	0
W1652981668	OpenAlex	2014-06-02	ISO 13482 - The new safety standard for personal care robots	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 8	2
W1769013118	OpenAlex	2015-10-20	Autism and social robotics: A systematic review	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 10	0
W1915767076	OpenAlex	2011-11-08	Augmented reality and haptic interfaces for robot‐assisted surgery	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 2	0
W1945345301	OpenAlex	2015-09-13	Benefits and problems of health‐care robots in aged care settings: A comparison trial	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2015-2019 rank 8	1
W1948807083	OpenAlex	2011-07-21	Attitudes towards health‐care robots in a retirement village	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 2	0
W1969004079	OpenAlex	2011-12-12	Moral Decision Making in Autonomous Systems: Enforcement, Moral Emotions, Dignity, Trust, and Deception	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 4	0
W1974872502	OpenAlex	2014-06-23	Uncontrolled Manifold Analysis of Arm Joint Angle Variability During Robotic Teleoperation and Freehand Movement of Surgeons and Novices	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 10	0
W1988821580	OpenAlex	2013-07-25	Home care robot for socially supporting the elderly	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 6	3
W1993237300	OpenAlex	2014-02-25	Sensor Network Infrastructure for a Home Care Monitoring System	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 5	0
W2001491100	OpenAlex	2014-08-04	Technologies as Support Tools for Persons with Autistic Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 6	1
W2014153923	OpenAlex	2012-12-10	Using the social robot probo as a social story telling agent for children with ASD	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 9	1
W2022427525	OpenAlex	2015-03-01	LineScout Technology Opens the Way to Robotic Inspection and Maintenance of High-Voltage Power Lines	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 7	1
W2031134752	OpenAlex	2010-09-01	Medical and Health-Care Robotics	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 3	0
W2040457694	OpenAlex	2011-08-31	Achieving Haptic Perception in Forceps’ Manipulator Using Pneumatic Artificial Muscle	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 4	1
W2048596731	OpenAlex	2015-03-02	Poor Thing! Would You Feel Sorry for a Simulated Robot?	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2015-2019 rank 5	1
W2055472151	OpenAlex	2013-03-01	Crowdsourcing Human-Robot Interaction: New Methods and System Evaluation in a Public Environment	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 6	2
W2068052231	OpenAlex	2011-10-01	An Exploratory Study of Health Professionals' Attitudes about Robotic Telepresence Technology	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 8	0
W2083250114	OpenAlex	2014-03-27	Social Robots: Views of Staff of a Disability Service Organization	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 7	1
W2092252440	OpenAlex	2012-01-01	Multimodal Child-Robot Interaction: Building Social Bonds	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 10	0
W2097128017	OpenAlex	2017-05-08	Social Signal Processing	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 5	1
W2106373505	OpenAlex	2012-01-02	Designing Robots for Care: Care Centered Value-Sensitive Design	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 1	1
W2112050719	OpenAlex	2014-09-01	Employing Humanoid Robots for Teaching English Language in Iranian Junior High-Schools	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 8	0
W2116134138	OpenAlex	2014-09-24	Teleoperation of Steerable Flexible Needles by Combining Kinesthetic and Vibratory Feedback	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 9	2
W2116547831	OpenAlex	2010-06-26	Robot rights? Towards a social-relational justification of moral consideration	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 2	2
W2124744767	OpenAlex	2011-01-16	Controller Design Solutions for Long Distance Telesurgical Applications	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 3	0
W2155246433	OpenAlex	2011-11-21	Social categorization of social robots: Anthropomorphism as a function of robot group membership	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 3	0
W2155661480	OpenAlex	2013-09-05	The empathic care robot: A prototype of responsible research and innovation	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 5	0
W2161460193	OpenAlex	2012-03-05	Designing persuasive robots	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 4	0
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W2166076705	OpenAlex	2013-08-14	A method for integrating ethics into the design of robots	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 9	0
W2167589601	OpenAlex	2012-01-01	Small Teleoperated Robot for Nuclear Radiation and Chemical Leak Detection	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2010-2014 rank 7	0
W2168676811	OpenAlex	2012-07-01	Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 1	1
W2188154624	OpenAlex	2013-01-01	Evolution of Industrial Robots and their Applications	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2010-2014 rank 10	3
W2294215545	OpenAlex	2015-12-25	Safety Operation Consciousness Realization of a MR Fluids-Based Novel Haptic Interface for Teleoperated Catheter Minimally Invasive Neurosurgery	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 6	1
W2296039882	OpenAlex	2015-08-12	An Energy Tank-Based Interactive Control Architecture for Autonomous and Teleoperated Robotic Surgery	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 3	0
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W2509798008	OpenAlex	2016-08-12	Medical telerobotic systems: current status and future trends	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 5	2
W2551865091	OpenAlex	2016-11-11	Ocean One: A Robotic Avatar for Oceanic Discovery	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 2	1
W2613446563	OpenAlex	2017-05-12	Personalized Variable Gain Control With Tremor Attenuation for Robot Teleoperation	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 4	0
W2773166896	OpenAlex	2017-11-01	Lower-limb exoskeletons	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2015-2019 rank 2	0
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W2789947276	OpenAlex	2018-03-25	The adoption of care robots in home care—A survey on the attitudes of Finnish home care personnel	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2015-2019 rank 10	2
W2793187201	OpenAlex	2018-02-23	An sEMG-Based Human–Robot Interface for Robotic Hands Using Machine Learning and Synergies	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 9	1
W2801271260	OpenAlex	2018-05-05	Health Care Robotics: Qualitative Exploration of Key Challenges and Future Directions	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2015-2019 rank 3	3
W2802955117	OpenAlex	2018-05-13	Nurses’ needs for care robots in integrated nursing care services	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2015-2019 rank 9	0
W2808281222	OpenAlex	2018-04-25	The Effectiveness of Social Robots for Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Studies	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 9	2
W2871950322	OpenAlex	2018-07-11	A Mass-Produced Sociable Humanoid Robot: Pepper: The First Machine of Its Kind	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 7	0
W2883165917	OpenAlex	2018-07-25	A highly sensitive, self-powered triboelectric auditory sensor for social robotics and hearing aids	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 4	1
W2887260263	OpenAlex	2018-08-15	Social robots for education: A review	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 1	1
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W2916945592	OpenAlex	2019-02-26	Your Robot Therapist Will See You Now: Ethical Implications of Embodied Artificial Intelligence in Psychiatry, Psychology, and Psychotherapy	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 3	3
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W2963669336	OpenAlex	2018-05-01	Deep Imitation Learning for Complex Manipulation Tasks from Virtual Reality Teleoperation	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2015-2019 rank 1	0
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W2991653934	OpenAlex	2019-10-01	STGAT: Modeling Spatial-Temporal Interactions for Human Trajectory Prediction	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2015-2019 rank 6	0
W2992487040	OpenAlex	2019-12-03	Impacts of robot implementation on care personnel and clients in elderly-care institutions	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2015-2019 rank 4	0
W3013207429	OpenAlex	2020-03-31	Anthropomorphism in AI	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 5	0
W3013511571	OpenAlex	2020-03-23	Avatar Work	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 7	0
W3014788674	OpenAlex	2020-04-01	Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Spine Surgery	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 6	0
W3029798270	OpenAlex	2020-05-26	Advanced Digital Health Technologies for COVID-19 and Future Emergencies	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 7	1
W3033293603	OpenAlex	2020-06-03	A Systematic Review of Attitudes, Anxiety, Acceptance, and Trust Towards Social Robots	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 1	1
W3034226296	OpenAlex	2020-07-07	Lio-A Personal Robot Assistant for Human-Robot Interaction and Care Applications	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 2	0
W3037684272	OpenAlex	2020-06-23	A review of haptic feedback in tele-operated robotic surgery	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 5	0
W3038265118	OpenAlex	2020-07-01	Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Nursing: Ethics of Caring as a Guide to Dividing Tasks Between AI and Humans	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 4	1
W3083173864	OpenAlex	2020-11-27	Speech gesture generation from the trimodal context of text, audio, and speaker identity	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 4	1
W3088949994	OpenAlex	2020-09-23	Assessing the Attitude Towards Artificial Intelligence: Introduction of a Short Measure in German, Chinese, and English Language	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 2	0
W3094783081	OpenAlex	2020-11-06	Heterogeneous integration of rigid, soft, and liquid materials for self-healable, recyclable, and reconfigurable wearable electronics	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 3	1
W3096656822	OpenAlex	2020-01-01	Collaborative Multi-Robot Search and Rescue: Planning, Coordination, Perception, and Active Vision	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 1	1
W3112188842	OpenAlex	2020-12-16	Turn-taking in Conversational Systems and Human-Robot Interaction: A Review	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 6	1
W3115247823	OpenAlex	2021-02-15	Artificial intelligence for good health: a scoping review of the ethics literature	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 1	0
W3119084295	OpenAlex	2021-02-04	What Makes a Robot Social? A Review of Social Robots from Science Fiction to a Home or Hospital Near You	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 10	0
W3132640379	OpenAlex	2021-02-21	The social dimension of domesticating technology: Interactions between older adults, caregivers, and robots in the home	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 10	1
W3134077239	OpenAlex	2021-03-11	An MR-Safe Endovascular Robotic Platform: Design, Control, and Ex-Vivo Evaluation	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 10	1
W3134972302	OpenAlex	2023-02-17	Core Challenges of Social Robot Navigation: A Survey	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 8	5
W3139475260	OpenAlex	2021-03-18	Cybersecurity, safety and robots: Strengthening the link between cybersecurity and safety in the context of care robots	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 8	5
W3153662883	OpenAlex	2021-04-16	A critique of robotics in health care	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 9	1
W3176315233	OpenAlex	2021-07-01	Multi-Sensor Guided Hand Gesture Recognition for a Teleoperated Robot Using a Recurrent Neural Network	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 4	0
W3214839373	OpenAlex	2021-11-22	Artificial Intelligence and Its Role in Education	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 3	1
W4205820809	OpenAlex	2022-01-14	Electronic skin as wireless human-machine interfaces for robotic VR	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 3	1
W4220820408	OpenAlex	2022-03-25	Frequency-selective acoustic and haptic smart skin for dual-mode dynamic/static human-machine interface	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 6	0
W4220961636	OpenAlex	2022-03-29	Still Not Solved: A Call for Renewed Focus on User-Centered Teleoperation Interfaces	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 9	4
W4223931121	OpenAlex	2022-04-13	Telerobotic neurovascular interventions with magnetic manipulation	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 2	2
W4224253948	OpenAlex	2022-01-01	Artificial Intelligence (AI) in early childhood education: Curriculum design and future directions	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 9	1
W4240195433	OpenAlex	2013-01-28	Multimodal Child-Robot Interaction: Building Social Bonds	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2010-2014 rank 7	0
W4282912956	OpenAlex	2022-06-08	A biomimetic elastomeric robot skin using electrical impedance and acoustic tomography for tactile sensing	barriers	top-cited social-robots 2020-2025 rank 7	1
W4401142165	OpenAlex	2020-01-01	Humans and Robots	barriers	top-cited care-robots 2020-2025 rank 5	0
W4405784982	OpenAlex	2024-10-14	GELLO: A General, Low-Cost, and Intuitive Teleoperation Framework for Robot Manipulators	barriers	top-cited teleoperated-robots 2020-2025 rank 8	2
W7117530735	OpenAlex	2025-12-30	A Survey of Behavior Foundation Model: Next-Generation Whole-Body Control System of Humanoid Robots	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 17	0
W7117676122	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	The Digitalisation of Firefighting: The Rise of Unmanned Technologies in Firefighting	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 1	0
W7117735659	OpenAlex	2025-12-30	Application of Artificial Intelligence Tools for Social and Psychological Enhancement of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 18	0
W7117744333	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Evaluating a Social Robot Reception Service in an Italian Geriatric Hospital (HOSPER Study): Protocol for a Usability Study	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 2	0
W7117745613	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	The Digitalisation of Firefighting: The Rise of Unmanned Technologies in Firefighting	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 3	0
W7117755680	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	The Effect of Robot Movement on Simulated Clinical History-Taking and Communication with an AI Chatbot: A Pilot Study	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 4	0
W7117871666	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	The Effect of Robot Movement on Simulated Clinical History-Taking and Communication with an AI Chatbot: A Pilot Study	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 5	0
W7117896569	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	The Effect of Robot Movement on Simulated Clinical History-Taking and Communication with an AI Chatbot: A Pilot Study	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 6	0
W7117964931	OpenAlex	2025-12-30	UniAct: Unified Motion Generation and Action Streaming for Humanoid Robots	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 19	0
W7117965740	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Antagonistic Bowden-Cable Actuation of a Lightweight Robotic Hand: Toward Dexterous Manipulation for Payload Constrained Humanoids	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 7	0
W7117970709	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Analysis of Technology Implementation for Autism Education	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 8	0
W7117973341	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Coordinated Humanoid Manipulation with Choice Policies	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 9	0
W7118051550	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Coordinated Humanoid Manipulation with Choice Policies	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 10	0
W7118052252	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Antagonistic Bowden-Cable Actuation of a Lightweight Robotic Hand: Toward Dexterous Manipulation for Payload Constrained Humanoids	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 11	0
W7118052446	OpenAlex	2025-12-30	UniAct: Unified Motion Generation and Action Streaming for Humanoid Robots	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 20	0
W7118123107	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Enhancing Humanoid Robot functionality through vision-based navigation with fall recovery and object manipulation	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 12	0
W7118159066	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Artificial intelligence in education	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 13	0
W7118161559	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Determining Consumer Purchase Intentions Based on Innovative Work Behavior: A Qualitative Study Within the Framework of The Uncanny Valley Theory	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 14	0
W7118220515	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Determining Consumer Purchase Intentions Based on Innovative Work Behavior: A Qualitative Study Within the Framework of The Uncanny Valley Theory	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 15	0
W7147018448	OpenAlex	2025-12-31	Moderating multi-party conversations with social robots	relevance	most-recent humanoid-robots work rank 16	0

§ 07

Limitations

The Open Library sample reads 3/20 of its documents about the root, a precision of 0.15: most of what it counts is not about the root.
13 of the 20 dated fiction works had no second record to check their year against, so the fiction lead rests on the catalogue's own dates.
Teleoperated robots scored 0.00, clamped: the mean of its components less its barrier penalty fell below zero, so the score is a floor rather than a measurement.